Chapter 14 - Personality Flashcards
1
Q
What is personality? What are traits?
A
Personality is a person’s typical way of thinking, feeling, and behaving
Personality is defined by traits, which are enduring predispositions that remain stable across situations
2
Q
What are the two major approaches to analyzing personality?
A
- In an nomothetic approach, we find general rules, or generalizations, that govern all others’ personalities
- In an idiographic approach, we find unique characteristics in individuals; this approach can help us generate new ideas to explore in nomothetic research
3
Q
Through behavioral-genetics research, which three broad influences to our personalities are examined?
A
- Genetics
- Shared environmental factors (Ex. Parents put both kids in hockey)
- Non-shared environmental factors (Ex. Parents put one kid in hockey and another in volleyball)
4
Q
T or F: in studying twins reared together, we know identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins.
A
True; supporting genetic influence
5
Q
T or F: in studying adoption studies, we know adopted children are more like their adoptive parents.
A
False. Adopted children are more like their biological parents; supporting genetic influence
6
Q
T or F: in studying monozygotic twins reared apart, we know monozygotic twins reared together are more similar than monozygotic twins reared apart.
A
False. Monozygotic twins reared together are about as similar as monozygotic twins reared apart; supporting genetic influence
7
Q
T or F: genetics play a complete role in personality development.
A
False. Shared environmental factors play a slight role in personality. Non-shared environmental factors play virtually no role in personality.
8
Q
Who had the first theory of personality?
A
Mr. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory was the first theory of personality
9
Q
What are hypnosis and free association? Which theorist used these to “access the unconscious mind”?
A
Hypnosis is a ”mind-controlling” technique to access the “unconscious cognition”
Free-association is psychoanalysis of instinctual thoughts; the psychiatrist says a word and the patient says the first word that came to mind upon hearing the word
Sigmund Freud used these techniques in his practice
10
Q
What are the three core assumptions of the psychoanalytical theory?
A
- Psychic determinism - all actions are due to inner forces and conflicts happening at an unconscious level
- Symbolic meaning - our actions represent our inner forces/ conflicts
- Unconscious motivation - the reasons for our actions are outside our awareness
11
Q
What is an id, ego, and superego?
A
Freud believed that we our personality was composed of an id, ego, and superego; each of which level being on different states of subconsciousness
The id includes our primitive impulses, such as libido (sex drive) and thanatos (aggression drive); the evil angel
The ego is the decision-maker/ mediator between the id and superego forces; works on the reality principle - working out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society
The superego includes our set of morals; forces us to feel guilt and develops later in life; the good angel
12
Q
Freud; when does intra-psychic conflict occur?
A
When competing demands rise between the id, ego, and superego
13
Q
What did Freud believe about dreams?
A
Our id pushes us into dreams for wish fulfillment
The superego commands the ego to hide the desires
14
Q
According to Freud, why do we need defense mechanisms?
A
Defense mechanisms occur when the ego tries to minimize anxiety from conflict between the id and superego
15
Q
What is repression?
A
The motivated forgetting of threatening memories or impulses
16
Q
What is regression?
A
Returning to a psychologically younger stage
Ex. Chewing nails, sucking on thumb
17
Q
What is reaction-formation?
A
Doing the opposite of what triggers the anxiety
Ex. Picking on your crush to hide your feelings
18
Q
What is projection?
A
Attribution your feelings onto others
Ex. “They don’t like me” when in reality, you just don’t like them
19
Q
What is displacement?
A
Transferring your feelings onto a safer object
Ex. Hitting your partner to deal with stress towards your boss
20
Q
What is rationalization?
A
Explaining-away behavior; rationalizing behavior instead of dealing with emotions
21
Q
What is intellectualization?
A
Explaining emotions with high-concept ideas; focusing on facts to avoid emotion
22
Q
What is sublimation?
A
Changing a negative impulse into a socially-valued goal
Ex. Taking your urge to fight someone and boxing to fulfill the urge
23
Q
What are the stages/ order of stages of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development?
A
- Oral stage (birth to 18 months)
- Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)
- Phallic stage (3 years to 6 years)
- Latency stage (6 years to 12 years)
- Genital stage (12+ years)
24
Q
What is denial?
A
Motivated forgetting of current experiences
25
What is *Freud’s psychosexual stages theory of development*?
A *pseudoscientific* theory that *personality develops through a series of childhood stages* in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain **erogenous areas**.
*Fixations* at each stage are due to *over/ under* homoerotic stimulation in certain “*sexual body parts*”; fixations *lead to* certain **personality traits**
26
What is the **oral stage** of *Freud’s psychosexual stages of development*?
From *birth to 18 months*, everything is about the **mouth** and **”sucking pleasures”**
*Ex. Objects, mother’s breast, and thumbs*
People that remain fixated at this stage become **dependent on others for reassurance** and **continue to seek oral fixation** (*smoking, eating, etc.*)
27
What is the **anal stage** of *Freud’s psychosexual stages of development*?
From *18 months to 3 years,* children learn **bowel and bladder control**; a child has to *learn how to control their bodily needs*
Parents that *inappropriately react* to their children’s failures in this stage cause their *children to remain fixated* at this stage
People that remain fixated at this stage become **excessively orderly/ perfectionistic** or **excessively lazy/ aggressive**
28
What is the **phallic stage** of *Freud’s psychosexual stages of development*?
From *3 to 6 years,* *boys* develop an “**oedipus complex**” and *girls* develop an “**electra complex**”
*Boys*…
- Develop an *urge to kill their father* and *have sex with their mother*
- Develop **castration anxiety** - fear that *dad* is going to *cut off their penis*
- Fixated at this stage, become **vain/ overly ambitious**
*Girls*…
- Develop **penis envy** - a *desire* to have a penis to *feel superior*
- Develop an *urge to kill their mothers* and *have sex with their fathers*
- Fixated at this stage, become **seductive/ overly ambitious**
29
What is the **latency stage** of *Freud’s psychosexual stages of development*?
From *6 years to 12 years,* *sexual impulses* are *held in the unconscious*; members of the *opposite sex* are *unappealing*; **libido** is going off, but *not sexual yet*
Fixation at this stage leads to *nothing*
30
What is the **genital stage** of *Freud’s psychosexual stages of development*?
From *12 years onwards,* sexual impulses *renew with puberty* and **romantic relationships** develop
Fixation at this stage can lead to **unhealthy relationships**
31
What are the *five* criticisms of *Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of development*?
1. **Unfalsiability** because he had a reason for *everything*
2. **Failed predictions** such as the **reppresion of memories**
3. *Poor support* for the **significant role of the unconscious** (*most things are conscious*)
4. **Unrepresentative/ small samples** consisting of mostly *rich people*
5. *Overemphasized role* of **shared environment** in personality development
32
What did **radical behaviorists** emphasize in *personality development?*
They emphasized **classical** and **operant conditioning** as the driving forces for personality development; personality is developed through **reinforcement**
*Ex. If your parents always argue in social environments, you might avoid those environments in the future*
33
What is a *strength* of **behavioral theories** of personality?
They are *scientific* and *testable*
34
What are *three* criticisms of **behavioral theories** of personality?
1. The *radical behavioral* theory discounts the **role of cognition** in personality development
2. They are **too simplistic**
3. *Over-emphasized* the impact of **shared environment** and *underestimated* the significant role of **genetics**
35
What are *three* core assumptions of the **humanistic** models of personality? What *two* theories fall under this category?
1. *Reject* the **determination for free will** - emphasize that we *can* make most choice independently
2. People want to **self-actualize** - be the *best versions* of themselves
3. People have an **innate, conscious** desire to be good
*Roger’s* and *Maslow’s* models of personality are humanistic theories
36
According to *Carl Roger,* what are the *three* components of one’s personality?
1. The **organism** is what we are *born with,* it is our *genetic blueprint* and it is **inherently positive**
2. The **self** is who we *feel we are*; it includes our **self-concepts** and **beliefs about ourselves**
3. The **conditions of worth** are *expectations* we place on ourselves regarding *appropriate vs. inappropriate* behavior; these conditions come from *society* and our *parents*
37
What did *Abraham Maslow* emphasize in his theory of personality?
*Maslow* focused on people who had *achieved self-actualization*; he focused on figures such as *Helen Keller, Gandhi, MLK, and Abraham Lincoln*
He stated that these figures had common features…
1. *Creative, spontaneous, accepting, and self-confident*
2. Focus on *real-world issues, intellectual issues, and privacy*
3. Express *controversial ideas*
38
What is a major *strength* of **humanistic theories** of personality development?
They paved the way for **positive psychology**
39
What are *four* criticisms of **humanistic** theories of personality development?
1. Humans are **not inherently “good” or “bad**
2. Narrowing the gap between the “actual” and “ideal” self *does not* improve well-being
3. *Maslow* studied *only* self-actualized people (**confirmation bias**)
4. The theories are **unfalsifiable**
40
A proponent of which theory would state: “*we humans are products of evolutionary forces that have preserved selfishness, pleasure-seeking, and a tendency to deceive ourselves*”?
A proponent of the **psychoanalysis theory**
41
A proponent of which theory would state: “*it doesn’t seem that you need to dig into a person’s past to understand their current problems and concerns*”?
A proponent of the **humanist theory**
42
A proponent of which theory would state: “*if we wanted to improve the character of people in our society, we would need to start when they are very young. By the time a kid is five years old, it’s probably too late*”?
A proponent of the **psychoanalysis theory**
43
A proponent of which theory would state: “*there aren’t any values inherent in human nature. Values are acquired in the same way we learn to say “please” and “thank you”*”?
A proponent of the **behaviorist theory**
44
What did the **social learning theories** emphasize about *environment and behavior*? What were *three* core assumptions of the theory?
How we **perceive** our **environment** drives our **behavior**
*behavior - environment - cognition*
Core assumptions:
1. **Reciprocal determinism** - all three factors *interact with one another*
2. **Observational learning** - we learn by *watching others*
3. **Locus of control** - *belief in our control* in life events (*external and internal*)
People with a high **external** locus of control advocate for *external factors* on life events; these individuals are *more likely* to have *anxiety*
People with a high **internal** locus of control advocate for *internal factors* on life events
45
What are *two* criticisms of **social learning** theories?
1. It relies on the **influence of the shared environment**; therefore, *not* a great application to personality
2. Classical/ operant conditioning *may not* require thinking
46
How do **trait models of personality** different from other theories?
They are focused on the **structure** rather than the cause of personality; question whether personality boils down to a few general traits
47
What are the steps to **factor analysis** of personality traits? What *type* of research does it rely on?
1. Come up with *ways to describe people*
2. *Test people* by asking them to rate themselves on each trait
3. See *which descriptors tend to go together* (are **highly correlated**)
4. *Name* the traits you come up with
This method relies on **empirical research**
48
What are the **big five** personality traits? What is the *acronym* to remember for these?
This will be on the midterm 100%.
**O**penness to experience - *like to try new things, intellectually curious*
**C**onscientiousness - *diligent, self-disciplined, like planned activities*
**E**xtraversion - *outgoing, friendly*
**A**ggreableness - *considerate of others, trusting*
**N**euroticism/ Emotional Stability - *instable, experience many negative emotions*
49
Which *three* **big five** personality traits predict *good job performance and higher school grades*?
Low **neuroticism**, high **conscientiousness*, and high **agreeableness**
50
Which *two* **big five** personality traits predict *likeliness to experience an emotional disorder*?
High **neuroticism** and low **extroversion**
51
**T or F**: openness to experience may not be cross cultural.
True. This is exemplified by “group harmony” vs. “honestly/ humility” cultural differences
52
**T or F**: the **big five** personality trait theory has little cross-cultural support.
False.
53
What are *two* ways personality traits differ across **cultures**, in regard to *individualism vs. collectivism*?
People in **individualist** cultures tend to have *higher self-esteem*
Personality tends to be *less* of an indicator of behavior in **collectivist** cultures
54
Medication and psychotherapy may be able to change **big five** personality traits … and … ?
May be able to change **neuroticism** and **extroversion**
55
**T or F**: personality traits slightly change until the age of 30, but are significantly less likely to change after the age of 50.
True.
56
What *three* **big five** personality traits tend to *decrease* from late teens to early 30s?
1. **Openness to experience**
2. **Extroversion**
3. **Neuroticism**
57
What *two* **big five** personality traits tend to *increase* from late teens to early 30s?
1. **Agreeableness**
2. **Conscienciousness**
58
**T or F**: personality *strongly predicts isolated behaviors* and can also *predict more broad trends* in behavior across environments.
False. Personality **only weakly** predicts isolated behaviors (*specific behaviors/ environments*) but *can predict* **more broad** trends in behavior across environments
59
*T or F*: personality traits *predict aggregated behaviors*.
True.
60
What is the *pseudoscientific* personality assessment method of **physiognomy**?
Detecting personality from *facial features*
*Ex. Forehead lines associated with aggression*
61
What is the *pseudoscientific* personality assessment method of “**Sheldon’s body types**”?
The attribution of **body types** to personality traits; body types being classified as **mesomorphs, ectomorphs,** and **endomorphs**
**Mesomophs** are super *muscular* people; these people are *assertive and bold*
**Ectomorphs** are *skinny* people; these people are *introverted and intelligent*
**Endomorphs** are *round* people; they are *funny, relaxed, and jolly*
62
**T or F**: in *Japanese culture*, **blood types** were used to assess personality.
True. This was one of the *pseudoscientific* methods of personality assessment we discussed.
63
What is the *pseudoscientific* personality assessment method of **phrenology**?
Examination of *head bumps*/ where they are to determine personality traits of the individual
64
What are **projective tests** for personality assessment? What are *three* examples of these tests? Are they *still* used?
Very **subjective** and **unreliable** personality assessment tests that function under the assumption that “**people will *project their personalities/ thoughts and desires* by *what they see* in pictures**”
*Ex. Ink blot test, thematic appreciation test (TAT), and draw-a-person test*
In the *ink-blot test,* participants are asked to examine ink blots; their interpretations are then examined
In the *thematic apperception test (TAT),* participants are shown a series of ambiguous cards and asked to tell a story based on what they see; their interpretations are then examined
In the *draw-a-person test,* participants are asked to draw their families; their drawings are examined for “truths;” ineffective for personality assessment but can be effective in *stimulating conversation with a child*
These tests *continue to be used,* despite **poor theoretical and psychometric support**
65
What are the *three* methods that **personality assessments** may rely on?
A **rational** method is *theory-driven*; it is **not** backed up by science
An **empirical** method is **science-driven**
A **rational empirical** method is a *combination* of the two
66
What method does the **Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)** use?
This test is **not** very reliable, valid, or scientific; it is *too rational* and very *theory-driven*
It uses the **rational/ theoretical** method
67
What are **multidimensional instruments** to personality assessment? What are the *three* validity scales?
These instruments include *many (hundreds) of symptoms,* **validity scales**, and *comparison to norms*
Validity scales:
- **Positive impression management** - an individual tries to *appear more well/ better*
- **Negative impression management** - an individual tries to *appear less well/ unhealthy*
- **Random responding**
68
The **MMPI-2** personality assessment tool uses the … **method**, has … (#) **symptom scales**, … (#) **validity scales**, … (low or high) **face validity**, and is *not* a diagnostic tool.
The **MMPI-2** personality assessment tool uses the [**empirical**] method, has [**10**] symptom scales, [**9**] validity scales, [**low**] face validity, and is *not* a diagnostic tool.
69
What does **face validity** mean?
The extent to which a study *participant can grasp what is being measured* by the questions they are asked
70
The **NEO-PI-R** personality assessment tool uses a … method and measures … traits.
The **NEO-PI-R** personality assessment tool uses a **rational empirical** method and measures **big 5** traits.
It was developed based on the *lexical and factor analysis* approach
71
What is the **P.T. Barnum Effect** and what are some examples?
Believing that a *vague description* of your future or personality *is highly accurate*
*Ex. Tarot cards, horoscopes, astrology, and psychics*
72
What are *three* reasons psychologists use poor psychology assessment measures?
1. **Illusory-correlations** - the tendency to see *correlations* between things that are *not correlated*
2. **Representativeness heuristic** - items that look *similar on the surface* may *not* actually be similar
3. **Availability heuristic** - the tendency to *remember the times it worked* easier than the times it did not
