Chapter 13 - Social Psychology

Question 1

Define social psychology

Answer 1

Study of how people influence others’ behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes

Question 2

What is Dunbar’s number?

Answer 2

The amount of people an individual can know reasonably well and develop relationships with; 150 people

Question 3

What is one of the harshest punishments?

Answer 3

Social isolation

Question 4

What are 4 ways the social nature of humans causes problems?

Answer 4

1. Competition
2. Conformity
3. Conflict
4. Obedience

Question 5

What is the social comparison theory? / what is downward vs. upward comparison?

Answer 5

We compare ourselves to others to help us understand/ evaluate our own beliefs and abilities.

Downward - comparing ourselves to someone “inferior” / looking down on someone

Upward - comparing ourselves to someone “superior” / looking up to someone

Relates to our drive for accuracy and self-enhancement

Question 6

What are internal/ dispositional vs. external attributions?

Answer 6

We attribute causes to behavior.

Internal/ dispositional - relate to one’s character/ personality

External - relate to one’s situational circumstances

Question 7

What is the fundamental attribution error?

Answer 7

Our tendency to attribute behavior to dispositional (external) factors and underestimate situational factors

Ex. he’s a shitty person because he cut me off [referring to an ambulance driver]

Question 8

What is a self-serving bias?

Answer 8

Explaining our own failures with situational factors and our successes with dispositional factors

Question 9

What is conformity?

Answer 9

Our tendency to alter behavior as a result of group pressure

Ex. Asch study

Question 10

Explain Asch’s line study.

Answer 10

1. Participants are asked to answer obvious questions regarding object similarity
2. Confederates are placed around the participants to answer wrongly
3. Participants conform with the confederates and answer wrongly on obvious questions

73% conformed on at least one trial
37% conformed on all trials

Question 11

When is conformity more likely? Six factors discussed.

Answer 11

Conformity is more likely when…
1. Rest of the group is unanimous - group is fully im agreement
2. You’re the only one with a different answer
3. The larger the majority, the more likely you’ll conform
4. Having to answer publicly
5. Individual has low self-esteem or is from a collectivist culture
6. When deindividualization occurs

Question 12

What is deindividualization? / what two factors explain the phenomenon?

Answer 12

The tendency for people, upon stripped of their usual identity, to engage in activities they otherwise would not engage in

Anonymity and lack of responsibility explain the phenomenon

Question 13

Explain the Stanford Prison Study. What did it aim to test? What did we learn? Which three situational factors play a huge role on behaviour, according to the study?

Answer 13

An experiment in which prescreened participants were randomly assigned as prisoners or guards and analyzed in a simulated prison for what was supposed to be 2 weeks, but ended after 6 days.

Aimed to examine situational influences on prison behavior:
1. Are guards inherently more sadistic?
2. Can the power of the situation make regular people do awful things?
3. Does your role determine your behavior?

Result:
- guards engaged in hostile, arbitrary, inventive humiliation
- prisoners experienced extreme psychological distress, became hopeless, and lost their sense of selves

Conclusion:
Situational factors have a huge influence on behavior…
1. Fulfilling social roles: guard vs. prisoner schema
2. Deindividualization: uniforms stripped guards of their identities in the real world
3. Dehumanization: prisoners given number identifications stripped of their human identities

Additional conclusion:
Scientists should remain neutral observers

Question 14

Abu Ghraib was the real world equivalent of …?

Answer 14

The Stanford Prison Experiment

Question 15

Large groups of strangers can act either … or … based on others’ actions?

Answer 15

Antisocially or peacefully

Ex. Piling sandbags for a flood vs. the Stanley cup riots

Question 16

What is groupthink? What three factors increase it? What are two ways to minimize it?

Answer 16

The emphasis on group unanimity over critical thinking

Ex. Walkerton, ON. - nobody wanted to speak out on e-coli contamination

Increased by…
1. Illusion of group unanimity
2. Conformity
3. Self-censorship

Minimized using…
1. A voice of dissent in the group (devil’s advocate)
2. Independent experts

Question 17

What is group polarization?

Answer 17

Tendency for group discussions to push dominant ideas to be held more strongly

Ex. News stations, social media, cults

Question 18

What are cults? / what are four common characteristics of cults?

Answer 18

A cult is a group with intense and unquestioning devotion to a cause

Ex. Heaven’s gate

Common characteristics:
1. Persuasive leaders
2. Disconnection from the outside world
3. Discouraged questioning of the path
4. Creating gradual indoctrination practices

Question 19

What is the best way to convince someone they are wrong?

Answer 19

List the reasons that they are right, then debunk those reasons

Question 20

What is obedience?

Answer 20

Adherence to instruction from authority figures

Ex. Milgram study

Question 21

What is the difference between obedience and conformity?

Answer 21

Obedience is blindly following a leader and conformity is blindly adhering to your peers/ others

Question 22

Explain the Milgram Study. What was the aim? What were the results? What did we learn?

Answer 22

The Milgram study aimed to analyze how far people would go, blindly following orders

Basis of idea…
We’re atrocities like the holocaust caused by evil people?
[and/or]
Did unethical action occur because normal people were just following orders?

1. Mr. Williams is conducting a punishment and memory/ learning study
2. Participant is the ”teacher”
3. Mr. Wallace is the ”learner” and he has a heart condition (actually the confederate)
4. The learner’s arm is strapped to a shock plate
5. Each incorrect response leads to a higher voltage, with 450V being the max
6. Mr. William encourages the teacher to continue
7. The learner becomes unresponsive at 345 volts

62% of participants go to the end (450 volts)

Conclusions:
- Situational factors can have a huge influence on behavior
- We need clear and rigorous ethical standards in research
- Scientists overestimated internal/ dispositional factors (compassion, kindness) and discounted situational influence (instructions from a scientist in a lab coat)

Question 23

Which six factors influence obedience? (in reference to the Milgram study)

Answer 23

1. Psychological proximity to the learner
2. Psychological proximity to the authority figure
3. Disagreement between two authority figures - the addition of one disagreeing scientist led to 0% compliance
4. Cues to prestige/ authority - less obedience if the research building was less prestige/ more rundown

Dispositional factors:
1. Morality - negative correlation with compliance
2. Authoritarianism - positive correlation with compliance

100% on midterm

Question 24

What is a criticism of the Milgram Study?

Answer 24

In the real-world, this kind of behavior is probably initiated by truly sadistic individuals; less by obedience

Question 25

What is the **bystander effect?**

Answer 25

Tendency to *assume others will intervene* and thus, not intervening yourself *Ex. Kitty Genovese was stabbed multiple times and audibly yelled but nobody decided to call the police, everyone probably thought “someone else must’ve called already”*

Question 26

What are *two* causes of the **bystander effect?**

Answer 26

1. **Diffusion of responsibility** - feeling *less responsible with more witnesses* nearby 2. **Pluralistic ignorance** - assuming *something is not an emergency because nobody is reacting* like it is (*Ex. Smoking Room Study*)

Question 27

What is **social loafting?**

Answer 27

The tendency to *slack off in groups* because people feel **less individual responsibility** *Ex. Clapping quieter in groups, Tug-of-War*

Question 28

What is **altruism?** What *decreases* altruism?

Answer 28

The act of *helping others* for **unselfish reasons** **Feeling rushed** decreases altruism (*Ex. The Good Samaritan Study*)

Question 29

What are *six* **situational factors** that *increase* the likelihood we help others?

Answer 29

1. Being **unable to escape** 2. Signs of **disability** 3. Being in a **good mood** 4. Observing **positive role models** 5. Being an **empathetic** person 6. When someone perceivably **shares the same values** as us

Question 30

What are *five* **individual/ gender factors** that *increase* the likelihood we help others?

Answer 30

1. Having **knowledge about social psychology** 2. Being **less traditional/ concerned about what others think** 3. Being **male** (especially in a scenario when the victim is an attractive female) 4. Being **extraverted** 5. Having **emergency training**

Question 31

What is **aggression?**

Answer 31

Behavior **intended to harm others** either physically or verbally

Question 32

What *seven* factors make us *more likely* to hurt others?

Answer 32

1. **Provocation** 2. **Frustration** 3. **Media** (only in the *short-term*) - how often we see certain aggression *normalized* in the media 4. **Aggressive cues** (*Ex. Weapons in one’s presence*) 5. **Arousal** (*Ex. From exercise*) 6. **Alcohol/ drugs** - reduce inhibitions 7. **Temperature** - *positive correlation* with aggressive behavior

Question 33

What *five* **individual/ cultural** factors make us *more likely* to hurt others?

Answer 33

1. High levels of **negative affect** - negative emotions such as *anger, mistrust, anxiety, and depression* 2. **Impulsivity** 3. **Men** between the ages of *12 and 28* 4. The **culture of honor** in Southern USA - the importance of *”defending your honor”* in the face of disrespect 5. Aggression is *less prevalent* in **Asian cultures**

Question 34

How does *aggression* vary across **genders?**

Answer 34

Men are *more aggressive overall* and more **physically aggressive** Women are more **relationally aggressive** **Relational aggression** is a more *passive aggressive* form of aggression (*Ex. Bullying and gossiping*)

Question 35

What is an **attitude?** What is it composed of?

Answer 35

A *positive or negative* evaluation about something or someone It is composed of… 1. **Affect** - outward expression of feelings and emotions 2. **Behaviors** 3. **Cognitions**/ thoughts

Question 36

When do attitudes *predict* behaviors? When do they *not?*

Answer 36

Sometimes attitudes *do not* predict behaviors *Ex. Attitudes and behaviors regarding distracted driving/ speeding in Edmonton* Sometimes attitudes *do* predict behaviors 1. When the attitudes are **easily accessible** 2. When the attitudes are **firmly held**

Question 37

**T or F**: a person, after completing a boring task, will rate it *more interesting* when they are given a *bigger reward.*

Answer 37

False. A person that has completed a boring task will rate it more interesting if they are given a lesser reward. According to the **cognitive dissonance theory**, someone that has received a poor reward will have little justification for why they did it. Therefore, they will *convince themselves they enjoyed the task to make up for the lack of justification for why they did it.* Someone that received a greater reward will be truthful and admit they did not like it because they are able to justify why they did it (*for the reward*)

Question 38

What is the **cognitive dissonance theory?**

Answer 38

When we experience **inconsistent cognitions, attitudes,** and **behavior,** we experience **dissonance** **Dissonance** is a *feeling of discomfort* when our attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions *don’t align* Therefore, we *modify* our behavior, attitudes, and/ or cognitions to *reduce* dissonance

Question 39

What are *two alternative theories* to the **cognitive dissonance theory** on why we chance our attitudes?

Answer 39

1. The **self-perception theory** states our *attitudes are created by observing our behaviors* 2. The **impressional management theory** states that *we lie* because we *don’t want to be seen as a hypocrite.* Thus, we didn’t change our attitudes, we just wanted to *show consistency*

Question 40

What are the *two* routes to **persuasion?** Through which route of attitude creation do attitudes *last/ endure longer*?

Answer 40

1. The **central** route is the *information content* route; really diving into the *specifics* of something 2. The **peripheral** route is the *surface aspects* route; looking only at the *broad, superficial* aspects of something Attitudes *last/ endure longer* through the **central route**

Question 41

What are the *three* common **persuasion techniques?**

Answer 41

1. **Foot-in-the-door** technique is coming first with a *small request, then asking for a bigger one later*; relies on **cognitive dissonance** 2. **Door-in-the-face** technique is coming with a favor, then *requesting slightly less when you say no* 3. **Lowball** technique is *starting with a low price,* then introducing *add-ons later*

Question 42

What are *seven* ways to **increase persuasion?**

Answer 42

1. Attractive/ famous **spokesperson** 2. “**Experts**” (*Ex. With a man coat*) 3. Vivid **testimonials** 4. “**Natural goodness**” (*”if something is natural, it must be good”*) 5. Emphasizing **scarcity**/ “limited supplies” 6. People with **similar features** - *more likely* to buy something if someone with similar features sells it 7. **Name-letter effect** - *more likely* to purchase/ associate with things that contain *your name letter*

Question 43

What is **prejudice?**

Answer 43

Tendency to *judge something/ someone **negatively*** before you’ve had the chance to evaluate your judgements with evidence

Question 44

What are *four* reasons we are **prejudice?**

Answer 44

1. Our **bringing up** 2. **Cognitive economies** are saved when we *avoid evaluating evidence* 3. The **media** (*Ex. Bright and pretty tone of the US in movies/ orange and yellow tone of Mexico in movies*) 4. **Evolutional factors** lead us to *naturally distrust* people *not in our group*

Question 45

What are the *two* factors that *maintain prejudice*?

Answer 45

1. **In-group bias** - favoring people *within our group over others*; *less empathy* in our brains for others 2. **Out-group homogeneity** - the belief that *all members of the other group are the same*

Question 46

What are **stereotypes?**

Answer 46

**Positive** *or* **negative** beliefs about *most* individuals in a group Can *influence* our *snap judgements* (*Ex. Amadou Diallo, a black man, shot for reaching into his pockets for his wallet*)

Question 47

What is the *difference* between **prejudice** and **stereotypes**?

Answer 47

A **stereotype** is a **negative or positive** belief about most individuals in a group **Prejudice** is a **specifically negative** judgement about most individuals in a group

Question 48

What is **discrimination?** What is *one* way it can be created?

Answer 48

The **act** of *treating the out-group differently*; influences *both* the discriminator and victim Creating *separate groups* on *chosen characteristics* can **create** discrimination

Question 49

What are *four* roots of **prejudice?**

Answer 49

1. **Scrape-goat hypothesis** - blaming those *beneath us* for *our misfortunes* 2. **Just-world hypothesis** - blaming the *victim* 3. **Conformity to social norms** - need to *fit in* and *be liked* 4. **Personality factors** - people with *high* **authoritarianism** and **extrinsic religiosity**

Question 50

What is the *difference* between **extrinsic** and **intrinsic** religiosity?

Answer 50

People with high **extrinsic religiosity** use religion to *make friends and network* (*more likely to be prejudice*) People with high **intrinsic religiosity** use religion as a *higher moral belief* with no networking benefits intended

Question 51

**T or F**: Caucasians pair negative words with black faces faster than with Caucasian faces

Answer 51

True.

Question 52

What is **group work?** What are *four* requirements for it to work well?

Answer 52

An effective technique to *combat prejudice*; encouraging people to *work together* on a *shared goal* To work well… 1. The contact should be *enjoyable* 2. Group members should be of **equal status** 3. Group members should *disconfirm* **stereotypes** 4. Groups members should be able to *become friends*