Chapter 13: Moral and Prosocial Development

Question 1

How can you contrast what we know about the development of expected fairness/morality with Piaget’s belief of how morality develops?

Answer 1

“…morality, specifically empathy, helping behaviour, categorizing people as helping and hindering, and the expectation of fairness, develop in infancy. These findings contradict Piaget who believed that fairness developed in mid-childhood, and developed as a result of peer interactions.”

Question 2

What is the naturalistic fallacy, and who is responsible for describing it?

Answer 2

“The error of equating what is good with what is natural, akin to the “is–ought” fallacy.” Described by George Edward Moore in 1903.

Question 3

When does the Piagetian Transitional Period begin and end, and what are the two main developments in this time?

Answer 3

From eight years to ten years. 1) After spending time in more balanced, peer relationships, children learn that rules are socially negotiable. 2) Learn to consider intention when making moral judgements.

Question 4

When does the Piagetian Moral of Constraint stage occur in development, and what are two key ideas regarding it?

Answer 4

Before eight years, or before children reach the concrete operational stage. 1) Everything is unalterably absolute: either permanently good or permanently bad. 2) Intention does not matter in determining if something is good or bad, only outcome. Ex. Cup breaking experiment.

Question 5

What does the Westermarck hypothesis state?

Answer 5

Adults who were raised together will feel disgust at the prospect of sexual involvement with each other.

Question 6

What were a few of the major criticisms thrown at Kohlberg’s stages of morality?

Answer 6

1) Kohlberg only studied males, which lead to an overestimation of adherence to social principles and ideals. 2) His results could not be generalized cross-culturally.

Question 7

How is a child likely to explain that a social convention has been violated? Would this differ from the violation of a moral rule?

Answer 7

Convention: The person’s actions were rude or impolite. Moral Rule: The person’s actions were harmful.

Question 8

How would an evolutionary psychologist best explain morality?

Answer 8

“The evolutionary psychology perspective rejects the idea that the acquisition of morality should be left to general-purpose learning mechanisms. Moral learning is constrained by learning mechanisms designed by natural selection.”

Question 9

At which age do children start to identify cheaters?

Answer 9

Three years.

Question 10

In how many other animals do we see a moral psychology?

Answer 10

“…no other animal has a human-like moral psychology. Humans are unique in having any kind of obligatory moral behavior: a psychology that tells us that we (and others) must actively behave in ways that aid other individuals. The emotions that support human morality, including shame, guilt, and empathy, are uniquely part of human psychology.”

Question 11

Assign a definition to the term ‘Grammar of Morality’.

Answer 11

The rules, heuristics, and intuitions that are a part of our human psychology and allow us to make moral decisions quickly and automatically.

Question 12

Provide three pieces of evidence for the Westermarck hypothesis.

Answer 12

1) Chinese/Vietnamese minor marriages, where brides are bought at a young age (before 30 months) and raised with the family, tend to result in poorer marriage outcomes. 2) Children raised in Kibbutz, a group home of sorts, will marry each other much less frequently than you would expect by chance. 3) The sexual disgust that a person shows towards the concept of incest is mediated by the amount of time that they co-resided with a sibling.

Question 13

When does the Piagetian Autonomous Morality stage begin, and what is the central theme here?

Answer 13

Usually at ten years of age. Children develop a concept of fairness across situations. They know that rules should meet the needs of multiple people, that punishment should be socially agreed upon, and that sometimes authority figures pose unjust rulesets.

Question 14

When do infants, themselves, begin to fairly divide rewards upon completing a task with another person?

Answer 14

Three years.

Question 15

How would you explain the original philosophical debate surrounding morality? Who were the main proponents of each side?

Answer 15

Nature vs. nurture. John Stuart Mills argued for utilitarianism, a type of nature argument. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke argued for empiricism, a type of nurture argument.

Question 16

State and explain three complimentary explanations for the evolution of altruism.

Answer 16

Kin Selection: “Behaviours that enhance the reproductive success of genetic relatives are selected for.” Reciprocal Altruism: “Individuals can trade goods and services, and both increase fitness if a commodity has greater value to the recipient than to the donor.” By-Product Mutualism: “There can be benefits to hanging around others, perhaps because of their status or knowledge. As the friendship grows, each person values the other more.”

Question 17

In brief, describe Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s positions on morality.

Answer 17

“Both held the view that morality and moral judgments are delivered to the developing child from society and that processes such as reward and punishment are an integral part of moral development…” but then that later moral decisions are “dependent upon sufficient cognitive development so that a child could think through the dispassionate logic…”

Question 18

Define morality.

Answer 18

The intuitive sense of right and wrong that guides our own behaviour and leads us to judge and possibly condemn others’ behaviours. This is part of our human psychology.

Question 19

When do we begin to see empathy and helping behaviour in infants?

Answer 19

At fourteen months of age.

Question 20

At which of Kohlberg’s moral stages do most people end up?

Answer 20

Stage 4, social systems.

Question 21

What are the core ideas behind pre-conventional morals? How is this stage broken up (two sub-stages)?

Answer 21

“Pre-conventional reasoning is self-centred, concrete, and immediate. In this stage, children are focussed on punishment and, in particular, how to avoid it.” 1) ‘Punishment and obedience orientation’. One must obey authority to be moral. 2) ‘Instrumental and exchange orientation’. Following a tit-for-tat strategy is moral.

Question 22

Based on what we know, roughly, when do infants start to prefer individuals who fairly distribute a commodity?

Answer 22

Between twelve and fifteen months.

Question 23

How does the ultimatum game demonstrate moral relativism?

Answer 23

The amount of resources that somebody will provide the other player with varies depending on their own height. This indicates that morals are facultatively determined.

Question 24

What are the core ideas behind post-conventional morals? How is this stage broken up (two sub-stages)?

Answer 24

“Post-conventional reasoning, according to Kohlberg, is reasoning according to ideals or moral principles. At this level, breaking a rule might be called for if breaking the rule involved behaviour that was consistent with the higher principle” 5) ‘Social contract and individual rights’. Laws can be violated if they violate individual rights or harm society. 6) ‘Universal principles’. There are universal moral principles that do not change regardless of context or majority opinion.

Question 25

How many stages of morality did Piaget describe?

Answer 25

Two. Morality of Constraint and Autonomous Morality. Piaget did not consider the Transitional Period a stage.

Question 26

Why is delayed reciprocal altruism uncommon across species? What mechanism is required for it to develop? Can you provide an example of it in nature?

Answer 26

Delayed reciprocal is rare because it requires a species to both recognize and remember individuals. This recognition is an uncommon mechanism that is only really seen in a few species, including vampire bats.

Question 27

People like other helpful people–this is true. But at what age do infants begin to display this preference?

Answer 27

Five months.

Question 28

Turiel described three domains in his theory. Can you list, describe, and provide an example for each of these domains?

Answer 28

1) Moral domain: clear and moral rules that regulated fairness and equality in the EEA. Are cross-cultural. Ex. Stealing, lying, and harming. 2) Social domain: social conventions and regulated traditions, customs, or practices. Are culture-specific. Ex. Raising one’s hand in class before speaking. 3) Domain of personal choice: how one spends their free time, which is akin to a facultative adaptation. Ex. How one styles their hair.

Question 29

What is the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behaviour (how people act)? Are there any interesting implications regarding this?

Answer 29

There is a weak relationship between moral reasoning and moral behaviour, indicating that moral decisions are made impulsively. This is evidence against what both Piaget and Kohlberg believed—that morals and slow and rational.

Question 30

What two reasons did Piaget provide to explain the absolute acceptance of rules during the Morality of Constraint stage?

Answer 30

1) These children are early in development and they classify rules as “things”/objects, which, to them, are absolute. 2) Adults are bigger than kids and have more power.

Question 31

Define prosocial development

Answer 31

All the nice things we do for, and to, others, including altruism, friendship, coalitional behaviours, and even parental behaviours.

Question 32

What are the core ideas behind conventional morals? How is this stage broken up (two sub-stages)?

Answer 32

“Conventional reasoning recognizes that rules are social contracts, and people who are in this stage follow rules and laws in order to preserve and promote social relationships and social order.” 3) ‘Mutual interpersonal relationships’. Fulfilling the expectations of one’s social role is moral. 4) ‘Social Systems’ Uphold the law and conform to societal expectations.

Question 33

What was the central thesis behind Turiel’s social domain theory?

Answer 33

“Turiel’s novel contribution was the suggestion that children reason differently about rules and transgressions in different domains…”

Question 34

Kohlberg discussed three overarching stages. What are these stages, and how do individuals progress through them?

Answer 34

1) Pre-conventional 2) Conventional 3) Post-conventional People progress through these stages in the same order, yet most do not reach the third stage.