Chapter 13 Flashcards
What is inductive reasoning?
reasoning based on observations or reaching conclusions from evidence.
Why is inductive reasoning referred to as bottom-up reasoning?
goes from specific observations to broader generalisations and theories.
what are the factors that contribute to the strength of inductive arguments.
number of observations, quality of evidence
Deductive reasoning
top-down reasoning where we go from more general to more specific.
heuristics
shortcuts, rules of thumb that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem.
availability heuristic
events that are most easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered.
what are illusionary correlations?
correlation between two events that appears to exist but doesn’t
what is a stereotype?
oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people
what is a stereotype?
oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people
representativeness heuristic
The probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resemble the properties we associate with class B.
what is the conjunction rule?
the probability of a conjunction of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents. (representative heuristic influences this)
what is the law of large numbers?
the larger the number of individuals from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.
what is the my-side bias?
people’s prior beliefs can lead to a focus on information that agrees with their beliefs. similar to the confirmation bias
what is validity?
the conclusion follows logically from its two premises.
what is the social exchange theory?
the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial for both people.
what is the utility approach to decisions
Expected utility theory: people are rational. If people have all the relevant information, they make decisions that result in the maximum expected utility.
calculating expected utility
multiplying assigned value and probability of each possible outcome. Highest EU is the decision people will go for.
What are the problems with the EU theory?
the events that occur before a decision can influence us. Individuals take more risks in hope of beating the odds.
What does damage to the prefrontal lobe do?
causes impaired decisions making and flattened emotions/ inability to respond to emotional events.
what is the somatic marker hypothesis?
emotion-related signals may bias certain choices.
how do ventromedial and orbitofrontal regions play a role in the somatic marker hypothesis?
regions in the prefrontal lobe that trigger somatic markers from memories and existing knowledge. Markers include changes in heart rate, blood pressure…
what does retriggering markers do?
anticipate the outcomes of certain decisions.
what do anxious people avoid
tend to avoid decisions that lead to large negative consequences (risk avoidance)
What are expected emotions?
emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome
what is risk aversion?
tendency to avoid taking risks
what is the prospect theory?
people’s choices are predicted by values assigned to gains and losses and not certain outcomes
what are incidental emotions?
emotions related to a person’s general dispositions (naturally happy)
what is the sadder but wiser hypothesis?
happy fealings take away attention from academic achievement. Sadness brings it back. Make more accurate and realistic decisions.
What has sadness been associated with?
more careful and deliberate decision making.
What is the learner experiment?
sad and disgusted people were more willing to sell highlighters for a lower price tha ntthehe neutral group. the sadness group were also willing to pay more for a set of pens.
Why was the sadness group willing to pay more for a set of pens?
sadness is linked to a sense of loss and therefore a need for change, reward, and replacement.
what is the myopic misery hypothesis?
people experiencing negative emotions, such as sadness or distress, tend to focus narrowly on their immediate concerns and may make decisions that are not in their long-term best interest
what is choice overload?
having more choice leads to less purchasing and less satisfaction
what are preceding decisions?
the previous contexts/ decisions/ cases that occurred before a specific decision can be an influence.
What is the example of the caesarean section experiment?
test was presented first, serious cases were presented first, non-serious cases were presented first.
The serious cases led to an increase in decisions to follow through with the caesarean section
what is the opt-in procedure?
people have to actively register YES to be an organ donor.
What is the opt-out procedure?
people are automatically organ donors but can de-register.
What is the status quo bias?
tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision
what is the framing effect?
Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated or framed. Can highlight some features and de-emphasize others.
what are neuroeconomics?
psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study brain activation related to decisions that involve gains and losses.
what is the ultimatum game?
unfair offers and you can choose to accept or decline but don’t get money. People are angered when they feel as though they have gotten an unfair offer. → people make decisions based on emotions rather than rational choices.
what area of the brain was activated more strongly when responders rejected the offer?
right anterior insula (area associated with negative emotional states.
Empiricists
all knowledge we have at any moment in time has been acquired through our senses.
Categorical syllogisms
All/ some/ most/ no exemplars x are member of category c.
Confirmation bias
the tendency to accept the information that confirms your beliefs and ignore all other information that is inconsistent with your belief system.
What are the two modes of thinking?
Experiential: more concentrated on emotion and pleasure.
Analytic system: more time and less cognitive overload, then we are more likely to analyze our decisions and options, reason oriented.
What is the experiment for the two modes of thinking?
Chocolate cake or fruit salad. When short on time and loads of cognitive overload, then opt more for the chocolate cake.
