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Cognitive psychology > Chapter 13 > Flashcards

Chapter 13 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

reasoning based on observations or reaching conclusions from evidence.

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2
Q

Why is inductive reasoning referred to as bottom-up reasoning?

A

goes from specific observations to broader generalisations and theories.

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3
Q

what are the factors that contribute to the strength of inductive arguments.

A

number of observations, quality of evidence

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4
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

top-down reasoning where we go from more general to more specific.

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5
Q

heuristics

A

shortcuts, rules of thumb that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem.

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6
Q

availability heuristic

A

events that are most easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered.

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7
Q

what are illusionary correlations?

A

correlation between two events that appears to exist but doesn’t

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8
Q

what is a stereotype?

A

oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people

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9
Q

what is a stereotype?

A

oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people

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10
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

The probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resemble the properties we associate with class B.

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11
Q

what is the conjunction rule?

A

the probability of a conjunction of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents. (representative heuristic influences this)

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12
Q

what is the law of large numbers?

A

the larger the number of individuals from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.

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13
Q

what is the my-side bias?

A

people’s prior beliefs can lead to a focus on information that agrees with their beliefs. similar to the confirmation bias

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14
Q

what is validity?

A

the conclusion follows logically from its two premises.

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15
Q

what is the social exchange theory?

A

the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial for both people.

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16
Q

what is the utility approach to decisions

A

Expected utility theory: people are rational. If people have all the relevant information, they make decisions that result in the maximum expected utility.

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17
Q

calculating expected utility

A

multiplying assigned value and probability of each possible outcome. Highest EU is the decision people will go for.

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18
Q

What are the problems with the EU theory?

A

the events that occur before a decision can influence us. Individuals take more risks in hope of beating the odds.

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19
Q

What does damage to the prefrontal lobe do?

A

causes impaired decisions making and flattened emotions/ inability to respond to emotional events.

20
Q

what is the somatic marker hypothesis?

A

emotion-related signals may bias certain choices.

21
Q

how do ventromedial and orbitofrontal regions play a role in the somatic marker hypothesis?

A

regions in the prefrontal lobe that trigger somatic markers from memories and existing knowledge. Markers include changes in heart rate, blood pressure…

22
Q

what does retriggering markers do?

A

anticipate the outcomes of certain decisions.

23
Q

what do anxious people avoid

A

tend to avoid decisions that lead to large negative consequences (risk avoidance)

24
Q

What are expected emotions?

A

emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome

25
Q

what is risk aversion?

A

tendency to avoid taking risks

26
Q

what is the prospect theory?

A

people’s choices are predicted by values assigned to gains and losses and not certain outcomes

27
Q

what are incidental emotions?

A

emotions related to a person’s general dispositions (naturally happy)

28
Q

what is the sadder but wiser hypothesis?

A

happy fealings take away attention from academic achievement. Sadness brings it back. Make more accurate and realistic decisions.

29
Q

What has sadness been associated with?

A

more careful and deliberate decision making.

30
Q

What is the learner experiment?

A

sad and disgusted people were more willing to sell highlighters for a lower price tha ntthehe neutral group. the sadness group were also willing to pay more for a set of pens.

31
Q

Why was the sadness group willing to pay more for a set of pens?

A

sadness is linked to a sense of loss and therefore a need for change, reward, and replacement.

32
Q

what is the myopic misery hypothesis?

A

people experiencing negative emotions, such as sadness or distress, tend to focus narrowly on their immediate concerns and may make decisions that are not in their long-term best interest

33
Q

what is choice overload?

A

having more choice leads to less purchasing and less satisfaction

34
Q

what are preceding decisions?

A

the previous contexts/ decisions/ cases that occurred before a specific decision can be an influence.

35
Q

What is the example of the caesarean section experiment?

A

test was presented first, serious cases were presented first, non-serious cases were presented first.
The serious cases led to an increase in decisions to follow through with the caesarean section

36
Q

what is the opt-in procedure?

A

people have to actively register YES to be an organ donor.

37
Q

What is the opt-out procedure?

A

people are automatically organ donors but can de-register.

38
Q

What is the status quo bias?

A

tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

39
Q

what is the framing effect?

A

Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated or framed. Can highlight some features and de-emphasize others.

40
Q

what are neuroeconomics?

A

psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study brain activation related to decisions that involve gains and losses.

41
Q

what is the ultimatum game?

A

unfair offers and you can choose to accept or decline but don’t get money. People are angered when they feel as though they have gotten an unfair offer. → people make decisions based on emotions rather than rational choices.

42
Q

what area of the brain was activated more strongly when responders rejected the offer?

A

right anterior insula (area associated with negative emotional states.

43
Q

Empiricists

A

all knowledge we have at any moment in time has been acquired through our senses.

44
Q

Categorical syllogisms

A

All/ some/ most/ no exemplars x are member of category c.

45
Q

Confirmation bias

A

the tendency to accept the information that confirms your beliefs and ignore all other information that is inconsistent with your belief system.

46
Q

What are the two modes of thinking?

A

Experiential: more concentrated on emotion and pleasure.
Analytic system: more time and less cognitive overload, then we are more likely to analyze our decisions and options, reason oriented.

47
Q

What is the experiment for the two modes of thinking?

A

Chocolate cake or fruit salad. When short on time and loads of cognitive overload, then opt more for the chocolate cake.

Cognitive psychology (5 decks)

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