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Human Structure and Function 1 > Chapter 12 - THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM > Flashcards

Chapter 12 - THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Flashcards

1
Q

The central nervous system consists of what two things?

A

brain, spinal cord

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2
Q

What is cephalization?

A

an elaboration of the rostral, or anterior, portion of the CNS, along with an increase in neurons in the head

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3
Q

What does gray matter consist of?

A

short, nonmyelinated neurons and neuron cell bodies

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4
Q

What does white matter consist of?

A

1 - mostly myelinated axons

2 - some nonmyelinated axons (primarily in fiber tracts)

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5
Q

What is the basic pattern of the CNS?

A

central cavity surrounded by gray matter, external to which is white matter

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6
Q

Does the spinal cord exhibit normal pattern?

A

yes

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7
Q

Does the brain stem exhibit the normal pattern of the CNS?

A

sort of, it has additional gray matter scattered within the white matter

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8
Q

What is a cortex? Where is it located?

A

1 - an outer layer of gray matter

2 - cerebral hemispheres / cerebellum

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9
Q

What are the brain’s ventricles? What are the chambers filled/lined with?

A

1 - central hollow cavities within the brain

2 - filled with CSF; lined with ependymal cells

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10
Q

What are the lateral ventricles? What do they reflect?

A

1 - pair of large C-shaped chambers, one in each hemisphere

2 - the pattern of cerebral growth

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11
Q

What is the septum pellucidum?

A

a thin median membrane that separates the lateral ventricles

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12
Q

Each lateral ventricles communicates with what? Via what?

A

1 - third ventricle (in diencephalon)

2 - a channel called the interventricular foramen

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13
Q

The third ventricle is continuous with what? Via what?

A

1 - fourth ventricle

2 - a canal-like cerebral aqueduct that runs through the midbrain

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14
Q

The fourth ventricle lies where?

A

in the hindbrain dorsal to the pons and superior medulla

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15
Q

What 3 openings mark the walls of the fourth ventricle?

A

lateral apertures (side walls) and the median aperture (in the roof)

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16
Q

What is the subarachnoid space?

A

a fluid-filled space surrounding the brain

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17
Q

What are the elevated ridges called?

A

gyri

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18
Q

What are the shallow grooves in the brain called?

A

sulci

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19
Q

What are deep grooves in the brain called?

A

fissures

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20
Q

What does the longitudinal fissure do?

A

separates cerebral hemispheres

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21
Q

What does the transverse cerebral fissure do?

A

separates the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum

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22
Q

What does the central sulcus do?

A

it separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

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23
Q

What borders the central sulcus?

A

the precentral gyrus and the postcentral gyrus

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24
Q

What separates the occipital lobe from the parietal lobe?

A

the parieto-occipital sulcus

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25
Q

What is buried deep within the lateral sulcus and forms part of its floor?

A

the insula

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26
Q

What houses the brainstem and the cerebellum?

A

The posterior cranial fossa

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27
Q

What structure enables us to be aware of ourselves and our sensations, to communicate, remember, understand, and initiate voluntary movements?

A

The cerebral cortex

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28
Q

Where is our conscious mind found?

A

The cerebral cortex

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29
Q

What is the cerebral cortex composed of?

A

Gray matter: neuron cell bodies, dendrites, associated glia and blood vessels, but no fiber tracts

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30
Q

The cerebral cortex account for how much of total brain mass?

A

40%

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31
Q

What are the three types of functional areas in the cerebral cortex?

A

1 - motor areas
2 - sensory areas
3 - associated areas

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32
Q

Where is the primary (somatic) motor cortex found?

A

In the precentral gyrus

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33
Q

What is the primary (somatic) motor cortex responsible for?

A

Conscious control of precise, skilled, skeletal muscle movements

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34
Q

Where is the premotor cortex found?

A

Anterior to the precentral gyrus

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35
Q

What is the premotor cortex responsible for?

A

1 - Planning movements; staging area for skilled motor activities
2 - controls voluntary actions that depend on sensory feedback

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36
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

The motor-speech area that directs muscles of speech production

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37
Q

How many hemispheres is Broca’s area found in?

A

One, usually the left

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38
Q

What is the frontal eye field?

A

Controls voluntary eye movements

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39
Q

Where are the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex?

A

Parietal, insular, temporal, and occipital lobes

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40
Q

What receives general sensory information from skin, and proprioceptors of skeletal muscle, joints, and tendons?

A

Primary somatosensory cortex

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41
Q

The primary somatosensory cortex is capable of spatial discrimination. What is that?

A

Identification of body region being stimulated

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42
Q

What integrate sensory input from the primary somatosensory cortex for understanding?

A

The somatosensory association cortex

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43
Q

What visual area receives visual information from the retinas?

A

The primary visual (striate) cortex

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44
Q

What visual area uses past visual experiences to interpret a visual stimuli such as color, form, and movement?

A

The visual association area

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45
Q

What visual area has the ability to recognize faces?

A

The visual association area

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46
Q

What auditory area interprets information from the inner ear such as pitch, loudness, and location?

A

The primary auditory cortex

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47
Q

What auditorium area stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sound stimulus?

A

The auditory association area

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48
Q

What is the vestibular cortex responsible for?

A

Conscious awareness of balance (position of head in space)

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49
Q

What sensory area is responsible for the conscious awareness of odors?

A

The olfactory cortex

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50
Q

What sensory area is involved in the perception of taste?

A

The gustatory cortex

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51
Q

What is the visceral sensory area responsible for?

A

Conscious perception of visceral sensations; such as an upset stomach or full bladder

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52
Q

What are the three broad parts of the multimodal association areas?

A

1 - Anterior association area (pre-frontal cortex)
2 - posterior association area
3 - limbic association area

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53
Q

What cortical region is involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality?

A

Anterior association area (pre-frontal cortex)

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54
Q

What cortical region contains the working memory needed for abstract ideas, judgment, reasoning, persistence, and planning?

A

Anterior association area (pre-frontal cortex)

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55
Q

What does the development of the anterior association area depend on?

A

Feedback from social environment

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56
Q

What large cortical region is located in the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes?

A

Posterior association area

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57
Q

The role of recognizing patterns, faces, and localizing yourself in space is associated with what cortical region?

A

Posterior association area

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58
Q

What cortical region is involved in understanding written and spoken language?

A

Posterior association area

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59
Q

What specific area in the posterior association area is involved in understanding written and spoken language?

A

Wernicke’s area

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60
Q

What cortical region is part of the limbic system?

A

Limbic association area

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61
Q

What cortical region involves the cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, and the hippocampus?

A

Limbic association area

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62
Q

What cortical regions and provide emotional impact that makes a scene important and helps establish memories?

A

Limbic association area

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63
Q

What does the lateralization of cortical function mean?

A

The division of labor

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64
Q

Are the hemispheres identical?

A

Almost

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65
Q

What does the term cerebral dominance designate?

A

The hemisphere that is dominant for language

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66
Q

Which hemisphere controls language, math, and logic?

A

Left hemisphere

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67
Q

Which hemisphere involves visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, and artistic/musical skills?

A

Right hemisphere

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68
Q

What are tracts?

A

Bundles of myelinated fires

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69
Q

What substance allows communication between the cerebral areas in between the cortex and lower CNS?

A

Cerebral white matter

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70
Q

Cerebral white matter consists of what?

A

Myelinated fibers and tracts

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71
Q

What three things do the cerebral hemispheres consist of?

A

Cortex, white matter, and the basal nuclei

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72
Q

What are the three classifications of the fibers and tracts that make up white matter?

A

Association, commissural, or projection

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73
Q

What kind of fibers connect different parts of the same hemisphere?

A

Association fiber

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74
Q

What kind of fibers connect corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres?

A

Commissural fibers

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75
Q

What allows the two hemispheres to function as a coordinated whole?

A

Commissures

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76
Q

What is the corpus callosum classified as?

A

Commissure

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77
Q

What kind of fibers tie the cortex to the rest of the nervous system into the body’s receptors and effectors?

A

Projection fibers

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78
Q

Projection fibers run in which direction?

A

Vertically

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79
Q

Commissural fibers run in which direction?

A

Horizontally

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80
Q

There is a group of subcortical nuclei deep within the cerebral white matter that are primarily involved in the control of movement. What are they called?

A

Basal nuclei (basal ganglia)

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81
Q

What does each hemisphere’s basal nuclei include?

A

Caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus

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82
Q

What does the caudate nucleus and putamen form?

A

The striatum

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83
Q

What three paired structures does the diencephalon include?

A

Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

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84
Q

How much of the diencephalon does the thalamus consist of?

A

80%

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85
Q

What structure of the diencephalon is the gateway to the cerebral cortex?

A

The thalamus

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86
Q

What structure of the diencephalon mediates sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory?

A

The thalamus

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87
Q

Which structure of the diencephalon forms the walls of the third ventricle?

A

The hypothalamus

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88
Q

What is the name of the stalk that connects to the pituitary gland from the hypothalamus?

A

Infundibulum

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89
Q

Which structure of the diencephalon controls the autonomic nervous system?

A

The hypothalamus

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90
Q

Which structure of the diencephalon Allows physical responses to emotions from the limbic system?

A

The hypothalamus

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91
Q

Which structure of the diencephalon regulates body temp, hunger, water balance/thirst, and your sleep-wake cycle?

A

The hypothalamus

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92
Q

Which structure of the diencephalon controls the endocrine system? This structure controls anterior pituitary gland secretions and produces posterior pituitary hormones.

A

The hypothalamus

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93
Q

What are the paired pealike nuclei that bulge ventrally from the hypothalamus and are relay stations in the olfactory pathways?

A

The mamillary bodies

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94
Q

What structure is the most dorsal portion of the diencephalon?

A

The epithalamus

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95
Q

What structure of the diencephalon does the pineal gland extend from?

A

The epithalamus

96
Q

What does the pineal gland secrete?

A

The hormone melatonin

97
Q

What does the pineal gland help regulate along with hypothalamic nuclei?

A

The sleep-wake cycle

98
Q

What does the brainstem consist of?

A

Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

99
Q

What feature is different in the brainstem that makes it different from the spinal cord?

A

The nuclei is embedded

100
Q

What does the brainstem control?

A

Automatic behavior is necessary for survival

101
Q

Brainstem nuclei are associated with how many of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves?

A

10

102
Q

Where is the midbrain located?

A

Between the diencephalon and the pons

103
Q

What hollow structure runs through the midbrain and connects the third and fourth ventricles?

A

The cerebral aqueduct

104
Q

What substance surrounds the cerebral aqueduct?

A

The periaqueductal gray matter

105
Q

What is the periaqueductal gray matter involved in?

A

Pain suppression and it links the fear-perceiving amygdaloid body and the ANS pathways that control the “fight or flight” response

106
Q

What is the largest midbrain nuclei that raises four domelike protrusions on the dorsal midbrain surface?

A

Corpora quadrigemina

107
Q

What are the functions of the superior colliculi?

A

Visual reflex center that coordinates head and eye movements when we visually follow a moving object, even if we are not consciously looking at it

108
Q

What are the functions of the inferior colliculi?

A

Part of the auditory relay; also act in reflexive responses to sound

109
Q

What are the two pigmented nuclei that are embedded in each side of the midbrain white matter?

A

Substantia nigra and red nucleus

110
Q

What part of the midbrain is functionally linked to basal nuclei?

A

Substantia nigra

111
Q

What part of the midbrain relays nuclei for some descending motor pathways and is part of reticular formation?

A

Red nucleus

112
Q

What does the fourth ventricle separate?

A

The pons and the cerebellum

113
Q

What three cranial nerves is the pons the origin of?

A

Trigeminal (V), abducens (VI), and facial (VII)

114
Q

What are the two functions of the fibers in the pons?

A

1 - Connect higher brain centers and spinal cord

2 - Relate impulses between the motor cortex and the cerebellum

115
Q

Where does the medulla oblongata join the spinal cord?

A

Foramen magnum

116
Q

What structure of the medulla oblongata relays sensory information on the degree of stretch in muscles and joints to the cerebellum?

A

Inferior olivary nuclei

117
Q

What structure of the of the medulla oblongata mediates responses that maintain equilibrium?

A

Vestibular nuclei

118
Q

What two nuclei housed in the medulla oblongata serve as relay nuclei in a pathway by which general somatic and proprioceptive sensory information ascends from the spinal cord to the somatosensory cortex?

A

Nucleus gracilis, nucleus cuneatus

119
Q

What structure of the brain stem is the cardiovascular center when involved in maintaining homeostasis?

A

The medulla oblongata

120
Q

What structure of the brain stem is the respiratory center when maintaining homeostasis?

A

The medulla oblongata

121
Q

How much of total brain mass does the cerebellum account for?

A

about 11%

122
Q

What part of the brain adjusts motor output, ensuring coordination and balance?

A

The cerebellum

123
Q

What connects the cerebellar hemispheres?

A

The vermis

124
Q

What is the tree like pattern of cerebellar white matter called?

A

Arbor vitae

125
Q

What structures does the cerebellum take input from?

A

Cortex, brainstem, sensory receptors

126
Q

What are the two main cerebellar functions?

A

Processes motor activity, cognitive activity

127
Q

What does the cerebellum use the signals from proprioceptors for?

A

Continuously inform the cerebellum of the body’s position and momentum

128
Q

What structure of the cerebellum calculates the best way to coordinate the force, direction, and extent of muscle contraction to prevent overshoot, maintain posture, and ensure smooth, coordinated movements?

A

The cerebellar cortex

129
Q

How does the cerebellum dispatch to the cerebral motor cortex its “blueprint“ for coordinating movement?

A

Via the superior peduncles

130
Q

What roles does the cerebellum play in cognition?

A

Thinking, language, emotion

131
Q

What are two examples of networks of neurons that work together but span wide areas of the brain?

A

The limbic system and the reticular formation

132
Q

What structure of the limbic system recognizes angry/fearful facial expressions, assesses danger, elicits fear; with the hippocampus, related to memory?

A

Amygdaloid body

133
Q

What does the limbic system do to odors?

A

Puts emotional responses to odors

134
Q

Most of the output from the limbic system is relayed with what other structure?

A

The hypothalamus

135
Q

What links the limbic system regions together?

A

The fornix

136
Q

What structure of the limbic system plays a role in expressing our emotions through gestures and in resolving mental conflicts when we are frustrated?

A

The cingulate gyrus

137
Q

Why is there an intimate relationship between our feelings and our thoughts?

A

Because the limbic system interacts with the prefrontal cortex

138
Q

Which two structures of the limbic system play a role in memory?

A

The hippocampus and the amygdaloid body

139
Q

What does the reticular formation extend through?

A

The medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain

140
Q

What is the reticular formation composed of?

A

Loosely clustered neurons and what is otherwise white matter

141
Q

What system send impulses to the cerebral cortex to keep it conscious and alert?

A

The reticular activating system (RAS)

142
Q

What system filters out repetitive, familiar, and weak stimuli?

A

The reticular activating system (RAS)

143
Q

What system is inhibited by sleep centers, alcohol, sleep-inducing drugs, and tranquilizers?

A

The reticular activating system (RAS)

144
Q

What can happen if there is a severe injury to the reticular activating system?

A

Permanent unconsciousness (coma)

145
Q

What motor functions does the reticular activating system have?

A

1 - helps control coarse limb movements via reticulospinal tracts
2 - regulates visceral motor functions: vasomotor, cardiac, and respiratory centers

146
Q

What does EEG stand for?

A

Electroencephalogram

147
Q

What is an electroencephalogram?

A

Electrical activity accompanying brain function; generated from cortical synaptic activity

148
Q

What does a flat EEG mean?

A

Clinical evidence of brain death

149
Q

What are the two types of seizures regarding epilepsy?

A

Absence and tonic-clonic

150
Q

What is an absence seizure?

A

A mild seizure, usually in young children, where their expression goes blank for a few seconds

151
Q

What is a tonic-clonic seizure?

A

The most severe type of seizure, it might last a few minutes, where a victim loses consciousness, bones might break during intense convulsions, loss of bowel and bladder control, and a possibility of severe tongue biting

152
Q

How can we control epilepsy?

A

Anticonvulsive drugs, implant a vagus nerve stimulator or deep brain stimulator, brain electrode implants to detect and prevent oncoming seizures

153
Q

What is consciousness?

A

Conscious perception of sensation, voluntary initiation and control of movement, capabilities associated with memory/logic/judgment

154
Q

What is a syncope?

A

A brief loss of consciousness

155
Q

What is a coma?

A

An extended period of loss of consciousness

156
Q

What are the two major types of sleep?

A

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM)

157
Q

What happens to people that are deprived of REM sleep?

A

They become moody and depressed

158
Q

What happens to daily sleep requirements as we age?

A

They decline

159
Q

What sleep disorder is defined by an abrupt lapse into sleep?

A

Narcolepsy

160
Q

What causes narcolepsy?

A

Orexins (“wake up” chemicals from hypothalamus) are destroyed by the immune system

161
Q

What is the chronic inability to obtain quality amount of sleep needed?

A

Insomnia

162
Q

What is one way that we can possibly treat insomnia?

A

Blocking orexin action

163
Q

What sleep disorder is a temporary cessation of breathing?

A

Sleep apnea

164
Q

What does sleep apnea cause?

A

Hypoxia

165
Q

The language implementation system is associated with what three bits?

A

Basal nuclei, Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area (associated with the cortex on the left side of the brain)

166
Q

What are the areas corresponding to Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area on the right side of the brain involved in?

A

Nonverbal language

167
Q

Regarding memory, what are the two stages of storage?

A

Short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM)

168
Q

What is another name for short term memory?

A

Working memory

169
Q

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

A

Seemingly limitless, but we can forget over time

170
Q

How is the hippocampus involved in memory?

A

It surrounds the temporal lobes, which are important to consolidation/access to memory

171
Q

Motor memory involves what structure of the brain?

A

The cerebellum

172
Q

Emotional memory involves what part of the brain?

A

The amygdaloid body

173
Q

What is necessary for memory formation and retrieval?

A

ACh from the basal forebrain

174
Q

What is the brain protected by?

A

Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, bone, and the blood brain barrier

175
Q

What are the three layers of the meninges?

A

From outer to inner: dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

176
Q

What is meningitis?

A

Inflammation of the meninges

177
Q

What are the two layers of the dura mater?

A

The periosteal layer and the meningeal layer

178
Q

What is the strongest meninx?

A

dura mater

179
Q

The arachnoid mater contains arachnoid villi. What is the function of the arachnoid villi?

A

Reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid

180
Q

What is the name of the delicate vascularized connective tissue the clings tightly to the brain?

A

Pia mater

181
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid formed from?

A

Blood plasma

182
Q

What does cerebrospinal fluid provide for CNS structures?

A

Buoyancy

183
Q

What fluid nourishes the brain and carries chemical signals?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid

184
Q

What structures hanging from the roof of each ventricle and produces cerebrospinal fluid at a constant rate while keeping it in motion?

A

The choroid plexuses

185
Q

What is a normal volume of cerebrospinal fluid and how often is it replaced?

A

150 mL; placed every eight hours

186
Q

Why are ependymal cells important to cerebrospinal fluid?

A

They use ion pumps to control the composition of cerebrospinal fluid and they help clean cerebrospinal fluid by removing waste

187
Q

What causes hydrocephalus?

A

And obstruction blocks cerebrospinal fluid circulation or drainage

188
Q

How is hydrocephalus treated?

A

Ventricular shunt to drain

189
Q

What’s the difference in hydrocephalus in newborns and hydrocephalus in adults?

A

Newborns have unfused skull bones which allows had enlargement while adults do not; pressure would kill neurons

190
Q

What does the blood brain barrier do for the brain?

A

It helps maintain a stable environment for the brain

191
Q

What does the blood brain barrier do with blood?

A

It separates neurons from some substances in blood

192
Q

In what way does the blood brain barrier allow nutrients to move?

A

Facilitated diffusion

193
Q

What substances does the blood brain barrier allow through?

A

Any fat soluble substances including alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics

194
Q

Why is the blood brain barrier absent in some areas?

A

These areas monitor chemical composition of blood

195
Q

What is a concussion?

A

Temporary alteration in function

196
Q

What is a contusion?

A

Permanent damage to the CNS

197
Q

What is a sub dural or subarachnoid hemorrhage?

A

It may force the brainstem through the foramen magnum, resulting in death

198
Q

What is a cerebral edema?

A

It is the swelling of the brain associated with a traumatic head injury

199
Q

What does the term ischemia mean?

A

It is when there is tissue deprived of blood supply and when brain tissue dies

200
Q

What is hemiplegia?

A

paralysis on one side of the body, or sensory and speech deficits

201
Q

What is a transient ischemic attack?

A

Temporary episodes of reversible cerebral ischemia

202
Q

What is the only approved treatment for a stroke?

A

Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)

203
Q

What is Huntington’s disease?

A

It is a fatal hereditary disorder caused by the accumulation of the protein huntingtin. It leads to the generation of the basal nuclei and the cerebral cortex.

204
Q

What is Parkinson’s disease?

A

It is a degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons of substantia nigra. The basal nuclei deprived of dopamine becomes overactive causing tremors at rest. The cause of this is unknown.

205
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

A

What is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain. Plaques of beta-amyloid peptides form in the brain, causing toxicity. Also, neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons kill the neurons by disrupting the transport mechanisms.

206
Q

Does the brain shrink with Alzheimer’s disease?

A

Yes

207
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin and end?

A

It begins at the foramen magnum and ends at L1 or L2 vertebrae

208
Q

Like the brain, what is the spinal cord protected by?

A

Bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid

209
Q

What do dorsal and ventral roots fuse laterally to form question

A

Spinal nerves

210
Q

What do neurons whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord gray matter having common?

A

They are all multipolar

211
Q

What do dorsal horns consist entirely of?

A

Interneurons

212
Q

What do the ventral horns consist of?

A

Some interneurons, mostly somatic motor neurons whose axons exit the spinal cord via the ventral roots

213
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in humans?

A

31

214
Q

What is the white matter of the spinal cord composed of?

A

Myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibers that allow communication between different parts of the spinal cord in between the cord and the brain

215
Q

What is a first-order neuron?

A

It conducts impulses from the cutaneous receptors and proprioceptors, branches diffusely as it enters the spinal cord or the medulla oblongata, it has synapses with the second-order neuron

216
Q

What is a second-order neuron?

A

It is an interneuron whose cell body is in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord or medullary nuclei with axons that extend to the thalamus or the cerebellum

217
Q

What is a third-order neuron?

A

It is also an interneuron whose cell body is in the thalamus whose axons extend to the somatosensory cortex. There are no third-order neurons in the cerebellum.

218
Q

What are the three main ascending pathways?

A

The dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways, the spinalthalamic pathways, and the spinocerebellar tracts

219
Q

Which of the three main ascending pathways transmit somatosensory information to the sensory cortex via the thalamus?

A

The dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways and the spinothalamic pathways

220
Q

The dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways mediate what?

A

Precise, straight-through transmission of inputs from a single type of sensory receptor that can be localized precisely on the body surface, such as discriminative touch and vibrations.

221
Q

The spinothalamic pathways primarily transmit what?

A

Impulses for pain and temperature, but also for coarse touch and pressure

222
Q

What do the spinocerebellar pathways do?

A

They convey information about muscle or tendon stretch to the cerebellum, which uses this information to coordinate skeletal muscle activity.

223
Q

What do descending pathways and tracts do?

A

They deliver efferent impulses from the brain to the spinal cord

224
Q

What are the two groups of descending pathways?

A

Direct pathways (pyramidal tracts) and indirect pathways (all the others)

225
Q

In the descending pathways, what two neurons do the motor pathways involved?

A

The upper motor neurons (pyramidal cells in primary motor cortex) and the lower motor neurons (ventral horn motor neurons that innervate skeletal muscles)

226
Q

What is the direct pathway regulate?

A

Primarily regulates fast and fine (or skilled) movements such as texting or playing an instrument

227
Q

What do the indirect pathways regulate?

A

They regulate the axial muscles maintaining balance and posture, the muscles controlling course limb movement, and head, neck, and eye movements that follow objects in your visual field

228
Q

Damage to the dorsal roots or sensory tracts result in what?

A

Paresthesias (abnormal sensations) or a loss of sensation

229
Q

What does damage to the ventral roots or ventral horn cells result in?

A

Paralysis, or the loss of motor function

230
Q

Severe damage to the ventral root or the ventral horn cells results in what?

A

Flaccid paralysis: impulses do not reach muscles and there is no voluntary or involuntary control of the muscles

231
Q

Damage to the upper motor neurons of the primary motor cortex results in what?

A

Spastic paralysis: spinal neurons remain intact and the muscles are stimulated by reflex activity but there is no voluntary control of muscles and muscles often shorten permanently

232
Q

What is transection?

A

It is the cross sectioning of the spinal cord at any level and results in a total motor and sensory loss and regions that are inferior to the cut

233
Q

The transection between T1 and L1 results in what?

A

Paraplegia

234
Q

The transection anywhere in the cervical region results in what?

A

Quadriplegia

235
Q

What is the transient period of functional loss caudal to a lesion called?

A

Spinal shock

236
Q

What is poliomyelitis?

A

It is the destruction of ventral horn motor neurons by the poliovirus

237
Q

What is Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?

A

It is the destruction of ventral horn motor neurons and fibers of the pyramidal tract

Human Structure and Function 1 (5 decks)

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