Chapter 12 - Social Psychology Flashcards
Social Psychology
The study of how people influence other people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
Ingroups/Outgroups
Over the course of human evolution, it was critical for groups to identify other groups as friends (suppliers) or foes (competitors)
Once such a categorization was made, it was equally critical to react accordingly, either by working together or by exhibiting aggression
Conditions to group development
Two conditions appear to be critical for group formation:
Reciprocity: if Person A helps (or harms) Person B, then person B will help (or harm) Person A; in other words, if you scratch my back, I will scratch yours
Transitivity: people generally share their friends’ opinions of other people; if Person A and Person B are friends, then if Person A likes Person C and dislikes Person D, then Person B will also tend to like Person C and dislike Person D
Shows commitment to person/ingroup
Outgroup homogeneity effect
The tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members
We don’t want to think we are all the same, but we are able to identify our differences because we already know our similarities/what brings us together, whereas the outgroup is grouped by similarity, and the ingroup is grouped by differentiality
Social identity theory
The idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership
Ingroup favoritism: the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup
Minimal group paradigm: minimal distinction to show discrimination between groups
Group influence
Given the importance of groups, it is not surprising that people’s thoughts, emotions, and actions are strongly influenced by their desire to be good group members
One way people try to fit in is by presenting themselves positively
Most people are easily influenced by others, conform to group norms, and obey commands made by authorities
More likely to conform to the group than one would think and more likely to willingly obey commands to the people in our ingroup
Social facilitation
The idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance Zajonc’s model predicts that social facilitation can enhance or impair performance: If the dominant response is relatively easy, the presence of others will enhance performance If the dominant response is difficult, the presence of others will impair performance *the example question in class of the girl practicing her singing*
Deindividuation
A state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; this phenomenon may occur when people are part of a group
Self-awareness typically causes people to act in accordance with their values and beliefs; when self-awareness disappears, so do restraints
People are especially likely to become deindividuated when they are aroused and anonymous and when responsibility is diffused
Ex. same people engaging in same behavior → diffusion of responsibility
Ex. the Stanford prison experiment
Stanford prison study
In a classic study, the psychologist Zimbardo and Haney showed how quickly apparently normal students could be transformed into the social roles they were playing
The researchers had male undergraduates at Stanford University play the roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison
Within days, some of the “guards” became brutal and sadistic
The prisoners became helpless to resist
Normal people can become evil due to circumstance
Behaviors quickly escalated, people on own would not behave like that but because of the group acted like that
Social loafing
The tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone
Six blindfolded people are wearing headphone were told to shout as loudly as they could. Some were told they were shouting alone; others were told they were shouting with other people. Participants did not shout as loudly when they believed that others were shouting with them
When people know that their individual efforts can be monitored, they do not engage in social loafing
Groupthink
The tendency of a group to make a bad decision as a result of preserving the group and maintaining its cohesiveness; especially likely when the group is under intense pressure, is facing eternal threats, and is biased in a particular direction
Is an extreme form of group polarization
The group does not carefully process all the information available to it, dissent is discouraged, and group members assure each other they are doing the right thing
How to prevent groupthink:
Leaders must refrain from expressing their opinions too strongly at the beginning of discussions
The group should be encouraged to consider alternative ideas, either by having someone play devil’s advocate or by purposefully examining outside opinions
Carefully going through alternatives and weighing the pros and cons of each help people avoid groupthink
Conformity
The altering of one’s behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people’s expectations
Why we conform:
Normative influence: the tendency for people to conform in order to fit in with the group
Informational influence: the tendency for people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond
Social norms
Expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior
Research consistently has demonstrated that people tend to conform to social norms:
Adolescents conform to peer pressure to smoke; jury members go along with the group rather than state their own opinions; people stand in line to buy tickets
All we need is one person to not go along with the group in order to deviate
Factors Affecting Conformity
When do people reject social norms?
Group size
Lack of unanimity→ one person not agreeing allow participant to not go along with group
Any dissent from majority
In a series of follow-up studies, Asch and others identified factors that decrease the chances of conformity
Grouper enforce conformity, and those who fail to go along are rejected
Asch and Sherif studies
Sherif
Social psychology may be able to suggest strategies for promoting intergroup harmony and producing greater tolerance for outgroups
The first study to suggest so was conducted in the 1950s by Sherif and colleagues
Phases 1 and 2 of Sherif’s competitions and cooperation study
Asch did follow up studies along with others to identify factors that decrease the chances of conformity
Compliance
The tendency to agree to do things requested by others
Foot in the Door
If people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable request
Once people commit to a course of action, they behave in ways consistent with that commitment
Door in the Face
People are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request
Low-balling
People who have already agreed to buy a product will often agree to pay the increased cost; the big decision was whether to make a purchase at all
A salesperson offers a product – for example, a car – for a very low price. Once the customer agrees, the salesperson may claim that the manager did not approve the price or that there will be additional charges
Obedience
When a person follows the orders of a person of authority
Milgram’s study
Milgram’s research demonstrated that ordinary people may do horrible things when ordered to do so by an authority
Individuals who are concerned about others’ perceptions of them are more likely to be obedient
Obedience decreases with greater distance from the authority
Obedience to Hitler during WWII
A recent replication of the Milgram studies found that 70% of the participants were obedient up to the maximum voltage in the experiment
Over the fifty years since the Milgram studies were conducted, a number of criticisms have emerged
Some participants received stronger encouragement than others to continue
Some participants apparently did not fully believe that the victim was receiving a life-threatening shock
Some researchers have even questioned whether participants were tuly obedient, or whether they were following the experimenter’s directives because they believed in the value of the scientific enterprise and wanted to help the experimenter
Encouragements to continue for the sake of the experiment have greater impact on participants than telling them they must obey because they have no choice
The most persistent criticism of Milgram’s experiments revolved around ethical treatment of the research participants
Despite the studies’ flaws, Milgram’s results document just how powerful situation**
Closeness of researcher/authority figure and the closeness of the actor will affect the obedience of the person
Human connection→ see the pain you are inflicting decreases how much people obey
Also meeting the person before the trials decreased obedience
Prosocial behaviors
Actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping
Why are humans prosocial
Motivated by empathy
Selfish motives, e.g., to relieve one’s negative mood
Inborn tendency to help others
Reciprocity → value we may have
Help our community they may help us
Altruism
Providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so
The fact that people help others, and even risk personal safety to do so, may seem contrary to evolutionary principles
Evolutionary standpoint → does this increase survival? But think of firefighters, soldiers, marines, police officers, etc. Goes against evolutionary principles
Bystander effect
The failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present
Research indicates four major reasons for the bystander intervention effect
Diffusion of responsibility
Fear of making social blunders in ambiguous situations
People are less likely to help when they are anonymous and can remain so
People weigh the costs versus benefits of helping
Deindividuation could be a factor as well
Not getting involved → self preservation?
Attitudes
People’s evaluations of objects, of events, or of ideas
Attitudes are shaped by social context, and they play an important role in how we evaluate and interact with other people
