Chapter 12: Problem Solving & Creativity

Question 1

Occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.

Answer 1

Problem

Question 2

Is the process of changing a problem’s representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, this is the key mechanism of problem solving.

Answer 2

Restructuring

Question 3

The Gestalt psychologists introduced the idea that reorganization is associated with _____, which is a sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Answer 3

Insight

Question 4

People’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution.

Answer 4

Fixation

Question 5

A type fixation that can work against solving a problem, focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object, is called _____ , which is an effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function.

This is illustrated by Duncker’s “candle problem” (using the container as a mounting vessel) and Maier’s “two-string problem” (using the pliers as a weighted pendulum).

Answer 5

Functional fixedness

Question 6

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.

Answer 6

Mental set

Question 7

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. Conditions at the beginning of a problem.

Answer 7

Initial state

Question 8

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. Solution to the problem.

Answer 8

Goal state

Question 9

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. The various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.

Answer 9

Intermediate state

Question 10

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. Permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution. Are usually governed by rules.

Answer 10

Operators

Question 11

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

Answer 11

Problem space

Question 12

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Answer 12

Means-end analysis

Question 13

In Alan Newell and Herbert Simon’s information-processing approach to problem solving. In the means–end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal. Occasionally, these may appear to increase the distance to the goal state, but in the long run can result in the shortest path to the goal.

Answer 13

Subgoals

Question 14

Newell and Simon developed the technique of _____ to study participants’ thought process as they are solving a problem.

• Participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while solving a problem. They are instructed not to describe what they are doing, but to verbalize new thoughts as they occur. One goal of the protocol is to determine what information the person is attending to while solving a problem.

Answer 14

think-aloud protocols

Question 15

_____ occurs when experience with a previously solved source problem or a source story is used to help solve a new target problem. Research involving Duncker’s radiation problem has shown that even when people are exposed to analogous source problems or stories, most people do not make the connection between the source problem or story and the target problem.

Answer 15

Analogical problem solving

Question 16

The starting point for much of the research on analogical problem solving has been to first determine how well people can transfer their experience from solving one problem to solving another, similar problem. This transfer from one problem to another is called _____.

Answer 16

Analogical transfer

Question 17

Two key terms that are used in research on analogical transfer are _____ problem, which is the problem the participant is trying to solve, and _____ problem, which is another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that illustrates a way to solve the target problem.

Answer 17

target; source

Question 18

Gick and Holyoak proposed that the process of analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

1. _____ that there is an analogous relationship between the source problem and the target problem
2. _____ the correspondence between the source problem and the target problem.
3. _____ the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem.

Answer 18

1. Noticing
2. Mapping
3. Applying

Question 19

Is the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined.

Answer 19

Analogical encoding

Question 20

Refers to a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”

Answer 20

Trade-off strategy

Question 21

Refers to a negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.

Answer 21

Contingency strategy

Question 22

The _____ is that, while it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, analogical problem solving is often used in real-world settings.

Answer 22

analogical paradox

Question 23

Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. This technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department.

Answer 23

In vivo problem-solving research

Question 24

Creative problem solving is associated with _____ — thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential “solutions”.

Answer 24

divergent thinking

Question 25

Creative problem solving has been described as a _____ that begins with generation of the problem and ends with implementation of the solution, with ideas happening in between.

Answer 25

process

Question 26

The technique of _____ has been proposed as a way to increase creativity, but generating ideas in groups is generally not as effective as generating ideas individually and combining them.

Answer 26

brainstorming

Question 27

Is when people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship.

Answer 27

group brainstorming

Question 28

A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.

Answer 28

Creative cognition

Question 29

Were objects created in Finke’s “creative cognition” experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product.

Answer 29

Preinventive forms

Question 30

Recent research has shown that deactivating the left ATL can increase creativity; that different brain states, measured with the EEG, are associated with insight-based and analytical-based problem solving; and that the _____ network and _____ networks work together during creative thinking.

Answer 30

default mode; executive control

Question 31

Another name for mind wandering, an activity which we’ve seen has been linked to creativity.

Answer 31

Daydreaming

Question 32

The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.

Answer 32

Volitional daydreaming

Question 33

_____ can enhance analytical thinking that requires focused attention. _____ can help avoid distractions by taking these steps:

• Have a place to be alone, away from distractions.
• Stay there for long enough to give your mind space to create ideas.

Answer 33

Solitude

Question 34

Is paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment.

Proposed pathways to achieve this involve meditation – a number of different practices for controlling the mind.

Answer 34

Mindfulness

Question 35

A type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath.

However, this type of meditation decreases mind wandering which may cause a decrease in creativity.

Answer 35

Focused attention (FA) meditation

Question 36

A type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes into the mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along.

This type of meditation does not decrease mind wandering. This meditation increased activation of the default mode network (more than FA meditation), increasing creativity.

Answer 36

Open monitoring (OM) meditation

Question 37

Kaufman and Gregoire’s (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN).

Answer 37

Imagination network