chapter 12: emotions, stress, and health

Question 1

How do arousal, expressive behavior, and cognition interact in emotion?

Answer 1

emotions are responses of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and most importantly, conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations. Theories of emotion generally address two major questions: (1) does physiological arousal come before or after emotional feelings? and (2) how do feelings and cognition interact? The James-Lange theory maintains that emotion occurs when we become aware of our body’s response to emotion-inducing stimuli. (we observe our heart pounding and feel fear). The Cannon-Bard theory purposes that our physiological response to an emotion-incuding stimulus occurs at the same time as our subjective feeling of the emotion (one does not cause the other)

Question 2

To experience emotions, must we consciously interpret and label them?

Answer 2

The Schachter-Singer two-factory theory hodls that our emotions have two ingredients, physical arousal and a cognitive label; the cognitive labels we put on our states of arousal are an essential ingredients of emotions. Lazarus agreed that many important emotions arise from our interpretations and inferences. But Zajonc and LeDoux have contended that some simple emotional responses occur instantly, not only outside our conscious awareness, but before any cognitive processing occurs. This interplay between emotion and cognition illustrates our two-track mind

Question 3

what is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system?

Answer 3

the arousal component of emotion is regulated by autonomic nervous system’s sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions. In a crisis, the fight-or-flight response automatically mobilizes your body for action

Question 4

How do emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses?

Answer 4

The large-scale body changes the accompany fear, anger, and sexual arousal are very similar (increased perspiration, breathing, and heartrate), though they feel different. Emotions may be similarly arousing, but some subtle physiological responses (such as facial muscle movements) distinguish them. More meaningful differences have been found in activity in some brain pathways and cortical areas

Question 5

how effective are polygraphs in using body states to detect lies?

Answer 5

polygraphs (lie detectors) attempt to detect lies by measuring several emotion-linked physiological changes, but are not accurate enough to justify widespread use in business and law enforcement. The concealed information test produces better indications of lying

Question 6

emotion

Answer 6

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and, most importantly, (3) conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations

Question 7

James-Lange theory

Answer 7

the theory that our experience of emotion occurs when we become aware fo our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Question 8

Cannon-Bard theory

Answer 8

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

Question 9

Two-factor theory

Answer 9

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) by physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

Question 10

polygraph

Answer 10

a machine used in attempts to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in perspiration, heartrate, and breathing

Question 11

the ____________ theory of emotion maintains that our emotional experience occurs after our awareness of a physiological response

Answer 11

James-Lange

Question 12

assume that after returning from an hour-long run, you receive a letter saying that your scholarship application has been approved. The two-factor theory of emotion would predict that your physical arousal will…
a) weaken your happiness
b) intensify your happiness
c) transform your happiness into relief
d) have no particular effect on your happiness

Answer 12

b) intensify your happiness

Question 13

Zajonc and LeDoux have maintained that some emotional reactions occur before we have had the chance to consciously label or interpret them. Lazarus noted the importance of how we appraise events. These psychologists differ in the emphasis they place on ________ in emotional responses.
a) physical arousal
b) the hormone epinephrine
c) cognitive processing
d) learning

Answer 13

c) cognitive processing

Question 14

What does a polygraph measure, and why are its results questionable?

Answer 14

A polygraph measures emotion-linked physiological changes, such as in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing. But the measure cannot distinguish between emotions with similar physiology (such as anxiety and guilt)

Question 15

______ report experiencing emotions more deeply, and they tend to be more adapt at reading nonverbal behavior.

Answer 15

women

Question 16

Are people more likely to differ culturally in their interpretations of facial expressions, or of gestures?

Answer 16

gestures

Question 17

(a) based on the facial feedback effect, how might students report feeling when the rubber bands raise their cheeks as though in a smile? (B) how might students report feeling when the rubber bands pull their cheeks downward?

Answer 17

a) most students report feeling more happy than sad when their cheeks are raised upwards
b) most students report feeling more sad than happy when their cheeks are pulled downward

Question 18

How do we communicate nonverbally?

Answer 18

Much of our communication is through body movements, facial expressions, and vocal tones. Even seconds-long filmed slices of behavior can reveal feelings.

Question 19

How do men and women differ in nonverbal communication?

Answer 19

Women tend to read emotional cues more easily and to be more empathic. Their faces also express more emotions.

Question 20

How are gestures and facial expressions understood within and across cultures?

Answer 20

The meaning of gestures varies with culture, but facial expressions, such as those of happiness and sadness, are roughly similar the world over. Context and culture can influence the interpretation of facial expressions; cultural display rules also influence the amount of emotion expressed.

Question 21

How do our facial expressions influence our feelings?

Answer 21

Research on the facial feedback effect shows that our facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings and signal our body to record accordingly. We also mimic others’ expressions, which helps us empathize. A similar behavior feedback effect is the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

Question 22

facial feedback effect

Answer 22

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings, such as fear, anger, or happiness

Question 23

behavior feedback effect

Answer 23

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings and actions

Question 24

when people are induced to assume fearful expressions, they often report feeling some fear. This result is known as the _____ ___________ effect.

Answer 24

facial feedback

Question 25

Aiden has a bad cold and finds himself shuffling to class with his head down. How might his posture, as well as his cold, affect his emotional well-being?

Answer 25

Aiden's droopy posture could negatively affect his mood thanks to the behavior feedback effect, which tends to make us feel the way we act.

Question 26

Which of the following is an effective strategy for reducing angry feelings? a) retaliate verbally or physically b) wait or "simmer down" c) express anger in action or fantasy d) review the grievance silently

Answer 26

b) wait or "simmer down"

Question 27

Which fo the following factors does NOT predict self-reported happiness? a) age b) personality traits c) sleep and exercise d) active religious faith

Answer 27

a) age

Question 28

what are some of the basic emotions?

Answer 28

most emotion scientists agree that anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and happiness are basic human emotions. Carroll Izard's 10 basic emotions are joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt.

Question 29

What are the causes and consequences of anger?

Answer 29

Anger is often evoked by misdeeds that we interpret as willfully, unjustified, and avoidable. But smaller frustrations and blameless annoyances can also trigger anger, and our culture can influence how we express that anger. Anger boosts our heartrate and increases inflammation. Emotional catharsis may be temporarily calming, but it does not reduce anger; expressing anger can make us angrier. Experts suggest reducing the level of physiological arousal of anger by waiting, finding a healthy distraction or support, and trying to move away from the situation mentally. Controlled assertions of feelings may resolve conflicts, and forgiveness may rid us of angry feelings.

Question 30

What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon, and what is the focus of positive psychology research?

Answer 30

Happy people tend to be healthy, energized, and satisfied with life, making them more willing to help others (the feel-good, do-good phenomenon). Positive psychologists use scientific methods to study human flourishing, aiming to discover and promote strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Question 31

How do time, wealth, adaptation, and comparison affect our happiness levels?

Answer 31

The mood triggered by good or bad events seldom last beyond that day. Even significant good events seldom increase happiness for long. Having enough money to assure comfort, security, and a sense of control predicts happiness; having more than enough does not increase it. Economic growth in many countries has produced rising inequality, which predicts unhappiness; in countries and states with greater inequality, lower-income people experience more ill health, social problems, and mental disorders. Happiness is relative to our own experiences (the adaptation-level phenomenon) and to others' success (the relative deprivation principle)

Question 32

What predicts happiness, and how can we be happier?

Answer 32

some individuals, because of their genetic predispositions and personal histories, are happier than others. Cultures, which vary in the traits they value and the behaviors they expect and reward, also influence personal levels of happiness. Tips for increasing happiness levels: take charge of your schedule, act happy, seek meaningful work and leisure, but experiences rather than things, exercise, sleep enough, faster friendships, focus and find meaning beyond the self, challenge negative thinking, and nurture gratitude and spirituality.

Question 33

catharsis

Answer 33

in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

Question 34

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

Answer 34

people's tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

Question 35

positive psychology

Answer 35

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Question 36

subjective well-being

Answer 36

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with lfie. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life

Question 37

adaptation-level phenomenon

Answer 37

our tendency to form judgments ( of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

Question 38

relative deprivation

Answer 38

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

Question 39

one of the most consistent findings of psychological research is that happy people are also... a) more likely to express anger b) generally luckier than others c) concentrated in the wealthier nation d) more likely to help others

Answer 39

d) more likely to help others

Question 40

______ psychology in a scientific field of study focused on how humans thrive and flourish

Answer 40

positive

Question 41

after moving to a new apartment, you find the street noise irritatingly loud, but after a while it no longer bothers you. This reaction illustrates the... a) relative deprivation principle b) adaptation-level phenomenon c) feel-good, do-good phenomenon d) catharsis principle

Answer 41

b) adaptation-level phenomenon

Question 42

a philosopher observed that we cannot escape envy, because there will always be someone more successful, more accomplished, or richer with whom to compare ourselves. In psychology, this observation is embodied in the ______ ________ principle

Answer 42

relative deprivation

Question 43

The stress response system: when alerted to a negative, uncontrollable event, our _______ nervous system arouses us. Heart rate and respiration _______. Blood is diverted from digestion to the skeletal ______. The body releases sugar and fat. All this prepares the body for the ____________ response.

Answer 43

sympathetic; increase; muscles; fight-or-flight

Question 44

the field of ___________________ studies mind-body interactions, including the effects of psychological, neural, and endocrine functioning on the immune system and overall health

Answer 44

psychoneuroimmunology

Question 45

What general effect does stress have on our health?

Answer 45

Stress tends to reduce out immune system's ability to function properly, so that higher stress generally leads to greater risk of physical illness

Question 46

What component of the Type A personality has been linked most closely to coronary heart disease?

Answer 46

Feeling angry and negative much of the time

Question 47

How does our appraisal of an event affect our stress reaction, and what are the three main types of stressors?

Answer 47

Stress is the process by which we appraise and respond to stressors that challenge or threaten us. If we appraise an event challenging, we will be aroused and focused in preparation for success; if we appraise it as a threat, we will experience a stress reaction, and our health may suffer. The three main types of stressors are catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles and social stress. Daily hassles and social stress may include inequality and prejudice, chronic work-place stress (which may lead to workers "burnout"), and the conflicts we face between our different approach and avoidance motives.

Question 48

how do we respond and adapt to stress?

Answer 48

Walter Cannon viewed the stress response as a fight-or-flight system. Hans Selye proposed a three-phase (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) general adaptation syndrome (GAS). People may react to stress by withdrawing. They may also show a tend-and-befriend response (more common in women)

Question 49

How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease?

Answer 49

Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect our immune system and resulting health. Stress diverts energy from the immune system, inhibiting the activities of its B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells. Stress does not cause illness, but by altering our immune functioning it may make us more vulnerable to diseases and influence this progression.

Question 50

Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease?

Answer 50

Coronary heart disease has been linked with the reactive, anger-prone Type A personality. Compared with relaxed easygoing Type B personalities, who are less likely to experience heart disease, Type A people's more active sympathetic nervous system may divert blood flow from the liver to the muscles, leaving excess cholesterol and fat circulating in the bloodstream. Chronic stress also contributes to persistent inflammation, which is associated with heart and other health problems, including depression.

Question 51

So, Does stress cause illness?

Answer 51

stress may not directly cause illness, but it does make us more vulnerable, by influencing our physiology and our behaviors

Question 52

stress

Answer 52

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Question 53

approach and aovidance motives

Answer 53

the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus

Question 54

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Answer 54

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion

Question 55

tend-and-befriend response

Answer 55

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

Question 56

health psychology

Answer 56

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

Question 57

psychoneuroimmunology

Answer 57

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect our immune system and resulting health

Question 58

coronary heart disease

Answer 58

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscles; a leading cause of death in many developed countries

Question 59

Type A

Answer 59

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Question 60

Type B

Answer 60

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

Question 61

The number of short-term illnesses and stress-related psychological disorders was higher than usual in the months following an earthquake. Such findings suggest that.... a) daily hassles have adverse health consequences b) experiencing a very stressful event increases a person's vulnerability to illness c) the amount of stress a person feels is directly related to the number of stressors experienced d) daily hassles don't cause stress, but catastrophes can be toxic

Answer 61

b) experiencing a very stressful event increases a person's vulnerability to illness

Question 62

which of the following is NOT one of the three main types of stressors? a) catastrophes b) significant life changes c) daily hassles d) pessimism

Answer 62

d) pessimsm

Question 63

Selye's general adaptation syndrome (GAS) consists of an alarm reaction following by ________, then ____________

Answer 63

resistance; exhaustion

Question 64

hen faced with stress, women are more likely than men to show a ______-and- ________ response

Answer 64

tend; befriend

Question 65

tress can be suppress the _________ ___________ by promoting a decrease in the release of lymphocytes, the cells that ordinary attack bacteria, viruses, cancer cells, and other foreign substances

Answer 65

immune system

Question 66

research has shown that people are at increased risk for cancer a year or so after experiencing significant stress or bereavement. In describing this link, researchers are quick to point out that... a) accumulated stress causes cancer b) anger is the negative emotion most closely linked to cancer c) stress does not create cancer cells, but it weakens the body's natural defenses against them d) feeling optimistic about chances of survival increases the likelihood of a cancer patient's recovery

Answer 66

c) stress does not create cancer cells, but it weakens the body's natural defenses against them

Question 67

A Chinese proverb warns, "The fire you kindle for your enemy often burns you more than him." How is this true of Type A individuals?

Answer 67

Type A individuals frequently experience negative emotions (anger, impatience), during which the sympathetic nervous system diverts blood away form the liver. This leaves fat and cholesterol circulating in the blood stream for deposit near the heart and other organs, increasing the risk of heart disease and others health problems. Thus, type A individuals actually harm themselves by directing anger at others.

Question 68

To cope with stress when we feel in control of our world, we tend to use ________-focused strategies

Answer 68

problem

Question 69

To cope with stress when we believe we cannot change a situation, we tend to use ______-focused strategies

Answer 69

emotion

Question 70

what are some of the tactics we can use to successfully manage the stress we cannot avoid?

Answer 70

aerobic exercise, relaxation procedures, relaxation and meditation, and religious engagement

Question 71

In what two ways to people try to alleviate stress?

Answer 71

we use problem-focused coping to change the stressor or the way we interact with it. We use emotion-focused coping to avoid or ignore stressors and attend to emotional needs related to stress reactions

Question 72

How does a perceived lack of control affect health?

Answer 72

a perceived lack of personal control provokes an outpouring of hormones that put people's health at risk. being unable to avoid repeated aversive events can lead to learned helplessness. People who perceive an internal locus of control achieve more, enjoy better health, and are happier than those we perceive an external locus of control. Belief in free will is linked to more helpful behavior, better learning, and greater work persistence, performance, and satisfaction.

Question 73

Why is self-control important, and can our self-control be depleted?

Answer 73

Self-control requires attention and energy, but predicts good health, higher income, and better school performance; it does better than an intelligence test score in predicting future academic and life success. Self-control varies over time. Researchers disagree about the factors influencing self-control, but strengthening it can lead to a healthier, happier, and more successful life.

Question 74

How does an optimistic outlook affect health and longevity?

Answer 74

Studies of people with an optimistic outlook show that they are more likely than pessimists to have optimal health, to be successful, and to have a longer life expectancy.

Question 75

How does social support promote good health?

Answer 75

Social support promotes health by calming us, improving our sleep, and reducing blood pressure, and it fosters stronger immune functioning. We can significantly reduce our stress and increase our health by building and maintaining relationships, and by confiding rather than suppressing painful feelings.

Question 76

How effective is aerobic exercise as a way to manage stress and improve well-being?

Answer 76

Aerobic exercise increases arousal, leads to muscle relaxation and sounder sleep, triggers the production of neurotransmitters, fosters neurogenesis, and enhances self-image. It can reduce or prevent depression and anxiety. In later life, regular exercise is associated with better cognitive functioning and longer life.

Question 77

In what ways might relaxation and meditation influence stress and health?

Answer 77

relaxation and meditation have been shown to lower stress, reduce blood pressure, improve immune functioning, and lessen anxiety and depression. Mindfulness meditation is a reflective practice of attending to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner. Massage therapy also promotes relaxation and reducing depression.

Question 78

What is the faith factor, and what are some possible explanations for the link between faith and health?

Answer 78

The faith factor is the finding that religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active. Possible explanations may include intervening variables such as the healthy behaviors, social support, or positive emotions often found among people who regularly attend religious services

Question 79

coping

Answer 79

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Question 80

problem-focused coping

Answer 80

attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Question 81

emotion-focused coping

Answer 81

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring stressors and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.

Question 82

personal control

Answer 82

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

Question 83

learned helplessness

Answer 83

the hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learned when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Question 84

external locus of control

Answer 84

the perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Question 85

internal locus of control

Answer 85

the perception that we control our own fat

Question 86

self-control

Answer 86

the ability to control impulses and delay short term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Question 87

aerobic exercise

Answer 87

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety

Question 88

mindfulness meditation

Answer 88

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner

Question 89

when faced with a situation over which you feel you have little control, you are more likely to turn to _______- focused coping

Answer 89

emotion

Question 90

Seligman's classic research showed that a dog will respond with learned helplessness if it has received repeated shocks and has had... a) the opportunity to escape b) no control over the shocks c) pain or discomfort d) no food or water prior to the shocks

Answer 90

b) no control over the shocks

Question 91

when elderly patients take an active part in managing their own care and surroundings, their morale and health tend to improve. Such findings indicate that people do better when they experience an _______ locus of control.

Answer 91

internal

Question 92

people who have close relationships are less likely to die prematurely than those who do not, supporting the idea that.... a) social ties can be a source of stress b) gender influence longevity c) Type A behavior is responsible for many premature deaths d) social support has a beneficial effect on health

Answer 92

d) social support has a beneficial effect on health

Question 93

because it triggers the release of mood-boosting neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and the endorphins, ______ exercise raises energy levels nad helps alleviate depression and anxiety.

Answer 93

aerobic

Question 94

research on the faith factor has found that.... a) pessimists tend to be healthier than optimists b) our expectations influence our feelings of stress c) religiously active people tend to outlive those who are not religiously active d) religious engagement promotes social isolation and repression

Answer 94

c) religiously active people tend to outlive those whoa re not religiously active