chapter 11: what drives us Flashcards
Performance peaks at lower levels of arousals for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks. (a) how might this affect marathon runners? (B) how might this affect anxious test-takers facing a difficult exam?
(a) well practiced runners tend to excel when aroused by competition
(b) high anxiety about a difficult exam may disrupt test-takers performance
After hours of driving alone in an unfamiliar city, you finally see a diner. Although it looks deserted and a little creepy, you stop because you are really hungry and thirsty. How would Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explain your behaviour?
According to Maslow, our drive to meet the physiological needs of hunger and thirst takes priority over our safety needs, promoting us to take risks at times.
How do psychologists define motivation? what are four key motivation theories?
Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. The instinct/evolutionary perspective explores genetic influences on complex behaviors. Drive-reduction theory explores how physiological needs create aroused tension states (drives) that directs us to satisfy those needs. Environmental incentives can intensify drives. Drive-reduction’s goal is homeostasis, maintaining a steady internal state. Arousal theory proposes that some behaviors (such as those driven by curiosity) do not reduce physiological needs but rather are prompted by a search for an optimum level of arousal. the Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs proposes a pyramid of human needs, from basic needs up to higher-level needs.
motivation
need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
physiological need
a basic bodily requirement
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Yerkes-Dodson law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before people can fulfill their higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs
Today’s evolutionary psychology shares an idea that was an underlying assumption of instinct theory. This idea is that….
a) physiological needs arouse psychological states
b) genes predispose species-typical behavior
c) physiological needs increase arousal
d) external needs energize and direct behavior
b) genes predispose species-typical behavior
an example of a physiological need
an example of a psychological drive is
a) hunger; a “push” to find food
b) a “push” to find food; hunger
c) curiosity; a “push” to reduce arousal
d) a “push” to reduce arousal; curiosity
a) hunger; a “push” to find food
Danielle walks into a friend’s kitchen, smells cookies baking, and begins to feel very hungry. The smell of baking cookies is a(n) _________
incentive
__________ theory attempts to explain behaviours that do NOT reduce physiological needs
arousal
with a challenging task, such as taking a difficult exam, performance is likely to peak when arousal is
a) very high
b) moderate
c) very low
d) absent
b) moderate
according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, our most basic needs are physiological, including the need for food and water; just above these are ___________ needs.
a) safety
b) self-esteem
c) belongingnees
d) self-transcendence
a) safety
hunger occurs in response to _____ blood glucose and ________ levels of ghrelin
low; high
After an 8 hour hike without food, your long-awaited favorite dish is placed in front of you, and your mouth waters in anticipation. Why?
you have learned to respond to the sight and aroma that signal the food about to enter your mouth. Both physiological cues (low blood sugar) and psychological cues (anticipation of the tasty meal) heighten your experienced hunger
Why can two people of the same height, age, and activity level maintain the same weight, even if one of them eats much less than the other does?
Genetically influences set/settling points, metabolism, and other factors (such as adequate sleep) influence the way our body burns calories
what physiological factors produce hunger?
Hunger pangs correspond to stomach contractions, but hunger also has other causes. Neural areas in the brain, some within the hypothalamus, monitor blood chemistry (including level of glucose) and incoming information about the body’s state. Appetite hormones include ghrelin (secreted by an empty stomach); orexin (secreted by the hypothalamus); leptin (secreted by fat cells); and PYY (secreted by the digestive tract). Basal metabolic rate is the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. The body may have a set point (a biologically fixed tendency to maintain an optimum weight) or a looser settling point (also influenced by the environment)
What cultural and situational factors influence hunger?
Hunger reflects our memory of when we last ate and our expectation of when we should eat again. Humans as a species prefer certain tastes (such as sweet and salty), but our individual preferences are also influenced by conditioning, culture, and situation. Some taste preferences have survival value. Situational influences include the presence of others, serving size, and the variety of foods offered
How does obesity affect physical and psychological health? What factors are involved in weight management?
Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or above, is associated with increased depression (especially among women) and bullying, and with many physical health risks. Genes and environment interact to produce obesity. Storing fat was adaptive to our ancestors, and fat requires less food intake to maintain than it did to gain. Set point and metabolism matter. Twin and adoption studies indicate that body weight is also genetically influenced. Environmental influences include sleep loss, social influence, and food and activity levels. Those wishing to lose weight are advised to make a lifelong changes in habits: begin only if you feel motivated and self-disciplined; exercise and get enough sleep; minimize exposure to tempting food cutes; limit variety and eat healthy foods; reduce portion sizes; relabel portions; time intake to avoid nighttime eating and eat heavier meals earlier in the day; beware of the binge; plan ahead to control eating during social events; forgive the occasional lapse; publicly chart your progress; and connect to support group
glucose
form of sugar that circulates in blood and provides major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger
set point
point which “weight thermostat” may be set. When body falls below weight, increase hunger and lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight
Basal metabolic rate
body’s resting rate of energy output
Obesity
defined as body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 of higher, which is calculated from weight-to-height ratio
Journalist Dorothy Dix once remarked, “nobody wants to kiss when they are hungry.” Which motivation theory best supports her statement?
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs supports this statement because it addresses the primacy of some motives over others. Once our basic physiological needs are met, safety concerns are addressed next, followed by belongingness and love needs (such as the desire to kiss)
According to the concept of ____ point, our body maintains itself as a particular weight level
set
Which of the following is a genetically predisposed response to food?
a) an aversion to eating cats and dogs
b) an interest in novel foods
c) a preference of sweet and salty foods
d) an aversion to carbohydrates
c) a preference for sweet and salty foods
blood sugar provides the body with energy. When it is _____, we feel hungry.
low
the rate o which your body expends energy while at rest is referred to as the ________ ___________ rate.
basal metabolic
obese people often struggle to lose weight permanently. This is due to several factors, including the fact that
a) trying to lose weight triggers neophobia
b) the set point of obese people is lower than average
c) with food restriction, metabolism increases
d) there is a genetic influence on body weight
d) there is a genetic influence of body weight
Sanjay eats a diet high in processed foods, fats, and sugar. He knows he may gain weight, but he figures its no big deal because he can simply lose it in the future. How would your evaluate Sanjay’s plan?
Sanjay’s plan is problematic. After he gains weight, the extra fat will require less energy to maintain than it did to gain in the first place. Sanjay may have a hard time getting rid of it later, when his metabolism slows down in an effort to retain his body weight.
The primary female sex hormones are the _______. the primary male sex hormone is ________.
estrogen; testosterone
someone who is distressed by impaired sexual arousal may be diagnosed with a __________ ___________. Exhibitionism would be considered a __________
sexual dysfunction; Paraphilia
what factors influence our sexual motivation and behavior?
Influences include biological factors such as sexual maturity and sex hormones, psychological factors such as environmental stimuli and fantasies, and social-cultural factors such as the values and expectations absorbed from family and the surrounding culture
Which three of the following five factors contribute to unplanned teen pregnancies?
a) alcohol use
b) higher intelligence level
c) father absence
d) mass media models
e) participating in service-learning programs
a) alcohol use
c) father’s absence
d) mass media models
which of the three following five factors have researchers found to have an effect on sexual orientation?
a) a domineering mother
b) the size of a certain cell cluster in the hypothalamus
c) prenatal hormone exposure
d) a distant and ineffectual father
e) for night-handed men, having multiple older biological brothers
b) the size of a certain cell cluster in the hypothalamus
c) prenatal hormone exposure
e) for night-handed men, having multiple older biological brothers
how do hormones influence human sexual motivation?
For all but those few of us considered asexual, dating and mating become a high priority from puberty on. The female estrogen and male testosterone hormones influence human sexual behavior less directly than they influence sexual behavior in other species. Women’s sexuality is more responsive to testosterone levels than to estrogen levels. Short-term shifts in testosterone level are normal to men, partly to response to stimulation.
What is the human sexual response cycle, and how do sexual dysfunctions and paraphilias differ?
William Masters and Virgina Johnson described four stages in human sexual response cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. During resolution there is a refractory period in which renewed arousal and orgasm are impossible. Sexual dysfunctions are problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning. They include erectile disorder and female orgasmic disorder, and can be often successfully treated by behaviorally oriented therapy drug therapy. Paraphilias are considered disordered if a person experiences distress from an unusual sexual interest or if it entails harm or risk of harm to others
how can sexually transmitted infections be prevented?
safe-sex practices help prevent sexually transmitted infections (STI’s). Condoms are especially effective in preventing transmission of HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Knowing one’s STI status, and sharing it with one’s sexual partner, is an important first step in STI prevention.
how do external and imagined stimuli contribute to sexual arousal?
External stimuli can trigger sexual arousal. Sexually explicit material may lead people to perceive their partners as comparatively less appealing and to devalue their relationships. Viewing sexually coercive material can lead to increased acceptance of violence toward women. Extensive only pornography exposure may desensitize young adults to real-life sexuality, leading to lowered sexual desire and satisfaction, and to erectile problems for men. Imagined stimuli (dreams and fantasies) also influence sexual arousal.
What factors influence teenagers’ sexual behaviors and use of contraceptives?
teen sexuality varies from culture to culture and era to era. Factors contributing to these variations include communication about birth control; impulsivity; alcohol use; and mass media. High intelligence, religious engagement, father presence, and service-learning participation predict teen sexual resistant.
what do we know about sexual orientation?
sexual orientation is the direction of our sexual attractions, as reflected in our longings and fantasies. We may have sexual attraction toward members of the other gender (heterosexual orientation), male and female genders (bisexual orientation), or no one at all (asexual orientation). Some people report experiencing sexual attraction unrestricted to any sex or gender identity (pansexual orientation). About 3 or 4 percent of women in Europe and the United States have exclusively same-sex attractions. Scientists have been unable to find specific environmental influences that contribute to sexual orientation. evidence for biological influence include same-sex attraction in other species; gay-straight trait and brain differences; genetic influences; and prenatal influences.
what role do social factors play in our sexuality?
scientific research on sexual motivation does not attempt to define the personal meaning of sex in our lives, which is influenced by many social factors. Sex is socially significant act. Sexual desire motivates people to form intimate, committed relationships, which in turn enable satisfying sex. Sex as its human best is life uniting and loving renewing.
Asexual
having no sexual attraction toward others
testosterone
most important male sex hormone. Male and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
estrogen
sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contributes to female sex characteristic and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen levels peak during ovulation. In nonhuman mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity.
sexual response cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
refractory period
in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm.
sexual dysfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning at any point in the sexual response cycle
erectile disorder
inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis
female orgasmic disorder
distress due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm
paraphilias
sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or nonconsenting persons
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
a life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a sexually transmitted infection. AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
sexual orientation
the direction of our sexual attractions, as reflected in our longings and fantasies
a striking effect of hormonal changes on human sexual behavior is the…
a) end of sexual desire in men over 60
b) sharp rise in sexual interest at puberty
c) decrease in women’s sexual desire at the time of ovulation
d) increase in testosterone levels in castrated males
b) sharp rise in sexual interest at puberty
in describing the sexual respond cycle, Masters and Johnson noted that…
a) a plateau phase follows orgasm
b) people experience a refractory period during which they cannot experience orgasm
c) the feeling that accompanies orgasm is stronger in men than in women
d) testosterone is released equally in women and men
b) people experience a refractory period during which they cannot experience orgasm
What is the difference between sexual dysfunctions and paraphilias?
Sexual dysfunctions are problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or sexual function. Paraphilias are conditions, which may be classified as psychological disorders, in which sexual arousal is associated with nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or nonconsenting persons
using condoms during sex ____ reduce risk of getting HIV and _____ fully protect against skin-to-skin STI’s
does;doesn’t
an example of an external simulus that might influence sexual behavior is….
a) the level of testosterone in the blood stream
b) the onset of puberty
c) a sexually explicit film
d) an erotic fantasy of dream
c) a sexually explicit film
Which factors have researchers so far found to be unrelated to the development of our sexual orientation?
Researchers have found no evidence that any environmental factor (prenatal relationships, childhood experiences, peer relationships, or dating experiences) influences the development of our sexual orientation
How have students reacted in studies when they were made to feel rejected and unwanted? What helps explain these results?
They engaged in more self-defeating behaviors and displayed more disparaging and aggressive behavior. These students basic need to belong seems to have been disrupted
social networking tends to _________ your relationships with people you already know, and _______ your self-disclosure
strengthe; increase
What have researchers found to be an even better predictor of school performance than intelligence test scores?
self-disciple (grit)
What evidence points to our human affiliation need - our need to belong?
our affiliation need-to feel connected and identified with others - had survival value for our ancestors, which may explain why humans in every society live in groups. According to self-determination theory, we strive to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness. Social bonds help us to be healthier and happier, and feeling loved activities brain regions associated with reward and safety systems. Ostracism is the deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups. Social isolation can put us at risk mentally and physically.
How does social networking influence us?
We connect wiht others through social networking, strengthening our relationships, meeting new friends or romantic partners, and finding support at difficult times. But increased online time displaces other activities, and social media uses increases people’s comparing their lives with others. Researchers are investigating possible connections between increasing screen time and arise in teen mental health problems. When networking, people tend toward increased self-disclosure. People with high narcissism are especially active on social networking sites. Working our strategies for self-control and disciplined usage can help people maintain a healthy balance between their real-world and online time.
What is achievement motivation, and what are some ways to encourage achievement?
Achievement motivation is a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard. High achievement motivation leads to greater success, especially when combined with determined, persistent grit. Research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation. To achieve our own goals, we can make a resolution; announce the goal; develop an implementation plan; create short-term rewards; monitor and record progress; create a supportive environment; and transform the behavior into a habit
affiliation need
the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group
self-determination theory
the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness
ostracism
deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard
grit
in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
the desire to perform. behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
which of the following is NOT evidence supporting the view that humans are strongly motivated by a need to belong?
a) students who rated themselves as “very happy” also tended to have satisfying close relationships
b) social exclusion - such as textile or solitary confinement - is considered a severe form of punishment
c) as adults, adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents
d) children who are extremely neglected become withdrawn, frightened, and sometimes even speechless
c) as adults, adopted children tend to resemble their biological parents
What are some ways to manage our social networking time successfully?
Monitor our time spent online, as well as our feelings about that time. Hide from distracting online friends when necessary. Check our devices less often. get outside and away from technology regularly.
if we want to increase our chances of success in achieving a new goal, such as stopping smoking, we ______ announce the goal publicly, and we _____ share with others our progress toward achieving that goal
should; should
