Chapter 12

Question 1

Classical conditioning

• who proposal to explain learning here?

Answer 1

• Ivan Pavlov
• Pairing two stimuli changes the response to
  one of them
  
  • Some stimuli naturally
    provoke responses

Question 2

Instrumental conditioning
- Ex?

Answer 2

a.k.a., operant conditioning
* Response followed by reinforcer or punishment

Question 3

LASHLEY’S SEARCH
- What is ENGRAM?

Answer 3

physical representation of
learning
* E.g., a connection between two brain areas
* Shows learning and memory do not rely on a single cortical area

Question 4

• Lashley’s principles of the nervous system

Answer 4

• Equipotentiality: all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex functioning behaviors (e.g., learning)
• Mass action: the cortex works as a whole and more cortex is better

Question 5

• Thompson et al. search for ENGRAM:
• LIP?
• conclusion of Thompson et al. search

Answer 5

Maybe engram is in cerebellum?
Lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) = central
for learning
* Responses increase as learning proceeds
* BUT… a change in a brain area doesn’t
necessarily mean that learning took place in
that area
Thomson concluded learning occurred in the LIP

Question 6

Cerebellar damage

Answer 6

• Cerebellar damage makes no conditioned eyeblinks.
• Damage to cerebellum impairs learned responses only if response requires precise timing

Question 7

Types of Memory

Answer 7

-Short-term memory
* Memory of events that have just
occurred
* Has limited capacity
* Fades quickly if not rehearsed

-Long-term memory
* Memory of events from times
further back
* Unlimited capacity
* Long-term memories persist

Question 8

CONSOLIDATION OF MEMORY
What Researchers propose?

Answer 8

Researchers propose all the information enters short-term memory
* Brain consolidates it into
long-term memory
- Later research weakened the distinction between short- and long-term memory
* Not all short-term  long-
term
* Time needed for
consolidation varies

Question 9

Emotionally significant memories form quickly

Answer 9

1. Locus coeruleus  norepinephrine in cortex + dopamine in hippocampus
2. Emotion  epinephrine and cortisol to activate amygdala & hippocampus

Question 10

Flashbulb memories

Answer 10

Are emotionally significant memories with a lot of details and vivid.

Question 11

Working memory

Answer 11

proposed as alternative to short-term memory, is a temporary storage of information to actively
attend to it + work on it for a period of time.

Question 12

During WM task a reverberating circuit holds the information
What we do?

Answer 12

we Store abbreviated information of a sequence of task (ex. EAESSE)

Question 13

Brain fog

Answer 13

Is a type of a Amnesia:
E.g., following COVID-19 or cancer treatments
* COVID virus causes a powerful reaction by the immune system

Cause period of forgetfulness, confusion, slow thinking, and impaired concentration.

Question 14

Inflammatory cytokines damage BBB-What happen?
* Consequences?

Answer 14

extra microglia activation
= memory and concentration problems.

Question 15

Impairs the blood flow to the brain-What happen?
* Consequences?

Answer 15

shrinkage of gray matter in
cerebral cortex + decreased myelin
* memory loss, and concentration difficulty.

Question 16

Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 16

Gradually progressive loss of
memory, often during old age
* Affects 50% of people over 85
and 5% of people 65-74
* Early onset influenced by genes,
most cases are late onset

• No drug is currently effective for Alzheimer’s disease

Question 17

Infants Alzheimer

• Hypotheses?

Answer 17

• Universal experience- not a disorder
• Children do form memories, the question is why we forget them

1. Changes in hippocampus and growth of new neurons
2. Infants do not store memories as well as they can when older
3. Rapid learning in early childhood displaces memories formed in infancy

Question 18

• H.M.: famous case study for what?
• Short-term/working remained intact?

Answer 18

• Hippocampus removed to prevent epileptic seizures
• After, H.M. had difficulty forming new long-term memories
• Yes Short-term/working remained intact because the patient can retain info by using mental repeated but forgot if it is distracted (Short-term/working work)

Question 19

A N T E R O G R A D E
A M N E S I A

Answer 19

Inability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia

Question 20

R E T R O G R A D E
A M N E S I A

Answer 20

• Loss of previous memories or before the event that caused the amnesia

H.M. showed both types after the surgery!

Question 21

H.M.- INTACT WORKING MEMORY

Answer 21

• H.M.’s short-term or working memory remained intact
• Remember a # 15 min. with no distraction
• When distracted, memory was gone in seconds

Question 22

H.M.’s memory impairments STORAGE OF LONG-
TERM MEMORY

Answer 22

• Unable to state the correct date or his current age
• Read the same magazine repeatedly without losing interest
• Could recall only a few fragments of events in the recent past
• Did not recognize himself in a photo, but did recognize himself in a mirror

Question 23

Semantic memory

Answer 23

• Memories of factual information
• H.M. was able to form a few weak semantic
  memories

Question 24

Episodic memory

Answer 24

• Memories of personal events
• H.M. could not describe any event since his surgery
• H.M. had severely impaired episodic memory

Question 25

Explicit memory

Answer 25

declarative,
memories that need a lot effort because are for remember events.

Question 26

Implicit memory

Answer 26

non-declarative
Memories that are make automatically, like habits and abilities.

• E.g., another patient and three nurses (the patient hat preference for a nurses the was kind and he was capable of remember think of her like because she is sweet)

Question 27

Hippocampus relates most strongly to episodic memories

Answer 27

• Episodic memories include context.
• Coordinates representations from various cortical areas.
• When retrieving episodic memory, activity in and around the hippocampus synchronizes with activity in several cortical areas.

Question 28

Procedural memory

Answer 28

It is the development of motor skills and habits, and also is a type of implicit memories.

Examples
* H.M. learned to read words written backward (as in a mirror)
* K.C. learned to use Dewey decimal system to sort books and is employed part time at a library

Question 29

Episodic memories need information exchange between

Answer 29

hippocampus &
cortex

Question 30

Memory reactivation:

Answer 30

hippocampus & cerebral cortex bounce messages back
and forth with sharp-wave ripples

Question 31

Ripples help…
Ripple patterns during….

Answer 31

• Ripples help to reexperience an event
• Ripple patterns during memory recall resemble those that occurred during original learning

Question 32

• Radial mazes
• Morris water maze task
  What this tasks shows?

Answer 32

Damage to hippocampus impairs
abilities on special tasks like those.

Question 33

Place Cells
Time Cells

Answer 33

• Place cells turned to a particular spacial location.

Time cells response a particular point in a sequence of time.

Question 34

The striatum

Answer 34

Is part of a Basal ganglia, and Habits & likelihood of events under a set of circumstances relies on striatum.
(habits develop slowly and depend of your striatum)
striatum orients behaviors relative to your body

Question 35

The striatum distinction of hippocampus?

Answer 35

Striatum learns habits (implicit) and hippocampus learns declarative (explicit) memories

• Most tasks activate both systems
• Hippocampal learning at the beginning of a task, but once the task becomes “habitual”/”automatic,” more emphasis on the striatum

Question 36

Hebbian synapse

• example
  -critical for what?

Answer 36

increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity
in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

• “Cells that fire together wire together”
• May be critical for associative learning

Question 37

Aplysia

Answer 37

is a marine invertebrate (Large neurons) used in multiple studies of learning, are important for undertant the mechanisms of habituation and sensitization.

Question 38

HABITUATION IN APLYSIA

Answer 38

Decrease in response to repeatedly presented stimuli accompanied by no
other change in stimuli.

• Depends upon change in synapse between sensory and motor neurons
• Sensory neurons fail to excite motor neurons as they did previously

Question 39

SENSITIZATION IN APLYSIA

Answer 39

• Increase in response to a mild stimulus as a result to previous exposure to
  more intense stimuli
• Changes at identified synapses include:
• Serotonin released from a facilitation neuron blocks potassium channels in
  the presynaptic neuron
• Prolonged release of transmitters from that neuron results in prolonged
  sensitization.

Question 40

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 40

occurs when one or more axons bombard a dendrite with stimulation

Question 41

Leaves synapses “potentiated”..

Answer 41

for a period of time and the neuron is more responsive

Question 42

THE 3 PROPERTIES OF LONG-TERM POTENTIATION

define them..

Answer 42

Specificity
* Only synapses onto a cell that have been highly active become strengthened

Cooperativity
* Simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP much more strongly that does repeated stimulation by a single axon

Associativity
* Pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later responses to weak input