Chapter 12

Question 1

Concrete operational stage

Answer 1

7 to 11 years; thinking is more logical, flexible, and organized

Question 2

Decentration

Answer 2

Ability to focus on several aspects of a problem

Question 3

Reversibility

Answer 3

Thinking through a series of steps and the returning to the starting point

Question 4

Seriation

Answer 4

Ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight

Question 5

Transitive inference

Answer 5

Ability to seriate mentally

Question 6

Cognitive maps

Answer 6

Mental representations of spaces

Question 7

Spatial reasoning

Answer 7

Ability to locate landmarks on maps improves; 10 to 12 year old increasingly grasp scale; substantial individual differences exist, influenced by cultural contexts

Question 8

Continuum of acquisition

Answer 8

Children master concrete operational tasks step by step, not all at once; gradual mastery of logical concepts indicates the limitations of concrete operational thinking

Question 9

Executive function

Answer 9

Supports gains in planning, strategic thinking, and self-monitoring; influenced by combination of heredity and environmental factors; can be improved with direct and indirect training (including mindfulness training)

Question 10

Inhibition and flexible shifting of attention

Answer 10

Inhibition improves sharply between 6 and 10; “Dimensional Change Card Sort” is used to assess children’s ability to switch rules in sorting; flexible shifting benefits from gains in inhibition

Question 11

ADHD symptoms

Answer 11

Inability to stay focused when mental effort is required for more than a few minutes; often ignore social rules and lash out when frustrated

Question 12

ADHD origins

Answer 12

Highly heritable, but also related to environmental factors such as a stressful home life

Question 13

ADHD treatment

Answer 13

Best treated with medication combined with interventions that model and reinforce appropriate behavior

Question 14

Rehearsal

Answer 14

Repeating items to oneself

Question 15

Organization

Answer 15

Grouping related items together

Question 16

Elaboration

Answer 16

Creating a relationship between pieces of information from different categories

Question 17

Semantic memory

Answer 17

Children’s general knowledge base

Question 18

Mental inferences

Answer 18

Enable knowledge of false belief and second-order false beliefs

Question 19

Recursive thought

Answer 19

Ability to view a situation from at least two perspectives

Question 20

Cognitive self-regulation

Answer 20

Continuously monitoring progress toward a goal; checking outcomes; redirecting unsuccessful efforts

Question 21

Whole-language approach

Answer 21

Way of teaching children to read by presenting texts in their complete form

Question 22

Phonics approach

Answer 22

Way of teaching children to read by first teaching basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds

Question 23

IQ tests

Answer 23

Provide an overall score representing general intelligence and separate scores measuring specific mental abilities; do not measure all aspects of intelligence

Question 24

Factor analysis

Answer 24

Used to identify abilities measured by intelligence tests

Question 25

Group administered tests

Answer 25

Allow testing of large groups; require little training to administer; are useful for instructional planning; identify students who need further evaluation

Question 26

Individually administered tests

Answer 26

Demand training and experience to give well; provide insight into whether a test score accurately reflects a child’s abilities; are often used to identify highly intelligent children and those with learning problems

Question 27

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (5th edition)

Answer 27

Age 2 to adulthood; measure five intellectual factors (general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and basic information processing)

Question 28

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-V (WISC-V)

Answer 28

Ages 6 to 16; for younger children, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised; measured four broad intellectual factors (verbal reasoning, perceptual/ visual-spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed)

Question 29

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence

Answer 29

Analytical intelligence (information processing), creative intelligence (generating useful solutions to new problems), practical intelligence (adapting to, shaping, or selecting environments)

Question 30

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Answer 30

Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Question 31

Stereotype threat

Answer 31

Fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

Question 32

Flynn effect

Answer 32

Describes how IQs have increased steadily from one generation to the next; increase is a dramatic secular trend that applies internationally

Question 33

Modernization

Answer 33

Contributes to greater participation by each successive generation in cognitively stimulating leisure activities

Question 34

Dynamic assessment

Answer 34

A form of testing in which an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation; consistent with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development—revealing what a child can attain with social support

Question 35

Pragmatics

Answer 35

Children can adapt to the needs of listeners in challenging communicative situations; ability to evaluate in organization, detail, and expressiveness

Question 36

Bilingual development

Answer 36

Simultaneous bilinguals and sequential bilinguals; bilingual children sometimes engage in code switching; sensitive period for second-language development exists, though a precise age cutoff has not been found; higher the degree of bilingualism, the greater the cognitive gains

Question 37

Traditional classrooms

Answer 37

The teacher is the sole authority

Question 38

Constructivist classrooms

Answer 38

Children are active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others

Question 39

Social-constructivist classrooms

Answer 39

Children jointly construct understandings with teachers and peers

Question 40

Reciprocal teaching

Answer 40

Groups question, summarize, clarify, and predict in cooperative dialogues

Question 41

Communities of learners

Answer 41

Adult and child contributors define and resolve problems

Question 42

Educational self-fulfilling prophecies

Answer 42

Children may adopt teachers’ positive or negative views and start to live up to them

Question 43

Homogeneous groups/classes

Answer 43

Can be a potent source of self-fulfilling prophesies

Question 44

Heterogenous learning contexts

Answer 44

Can reduce achievement differences between SES groups and ethnic minority and majority students

Question 45

Cooperative learning

Answer 45

Small groups work toward common goals; classmates consider one another’s ideas, challenge one another, correct misunderstandings, and resolve differences of opinion

Question 46

Learning disabilities

Answer 46

Great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading