Chapter 11: Problem Solving and Creativity

Question 1

What is problem solving?

Answer 1

Problem solving refers to the processes necessary to reach a goal, typically in situations where the solution is not immediately obvious.

Question 2

What are the features of a problem?

Answer 2

(1) initial state
(2) goal state
(3) obstacles

Question 3

Define understanding as it relates to problem solving.

Answer 3

Understanding refers to having a well-organized mental representation of the problem, based on both the information provided in the problem and one’s own previous experience.

Question 4

Why is attention important in problem solving?

Answer 4

Because competing thoughts can cause divided attention, which distracts away from the central task of problem solving. Attention is also important because you need to focus on the appropriate part of a problem in order to understand it.

Question 5

Explain problem representation.

Answer 5

Problem representation is the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format. When an appropriate format is selected, you are more likely to solve the problem correctly.

Question 6

What is a symbol?

Answer 6

Something that is used to represent something else. Symbols are helpful for solving abstract problems like creating an algebraic equation to solve a calculation/find a missing value. The main issue is that people often make mistakes when they translate words to symbols. Two common errors are reversing the role of two variables and oversimplifying the sentence and misrepresenting the information.

Question 7

What is a matrix?

Answer 7

A grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combinations of items. Matrices are helpful for solving complex problems when the information is categorical and stable, rather than changing over time. The main issue associated with matrices is when people do not use the appropriate labels.

Question 8

What is a diagram?

Answer 8

A schematic representation that uses visual techniques to represent information. Diagrams are helpful when you need to represent complicated or abstract information in a concrete fashion, when you need to represent a large amount of information, and when you need to show relationships between items. They help people understand problems and leave more “mental space” in working memory for problem-solving.

Question 9

What is a visual image?

Answer 9

Visual images allow people to escape from the boundaries of traditional, concrete representations.

Question 10

What is the situated-cognition approach?

Answer 10

The situated-cognition approach says that we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations. It also argues that our ability to solve a problem is tied into the specific physical and social context in which we learned to solve that problem. It emphasizes the external situation that surrounds you.

Question 11

How to the traditional cognitive approach and situated-cognition approach differ?

Answer 11

The situated-cognition approach argues that the traditional cognitive approach to problem solving is too simplistic. Whereas the traditional approach emphasizes an individual’s internal mental processes, the situated-cognition approach emphasizes taking advantage of the information-rich environment around us.

Question 12

What is embodied cognition?

Answer 12

Embodied cognition is using our own body and motor actions to express abstract thoughts and knowledge. Research indicates that being able to move parts of our bodies helps people solve certain kinds of problems with higher speed and accuracy.

Question 13

What is an algorithm?

Answer 13

An algorithm is a method that will always produce a solution to the problem. They are often inefficient and unsophisticated. The exhaustive search method is when people find the solution by trying out all possible answers using a specified solution.

Question 14

What is a heuristic?

Answer 14

Heuristics are general rules that are usually correct. When people use heuristics in problem solving, they ignore some alternatives and focus on the ones that seem most likely to produce a solution. Unlike an algorithm, heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution. However, heuristics are faster than algorithms. When people are deciding which one to use to solve a problem, they have to weigh the costs and benefits of speed versus possibly missing the solution.

Question 15

Describe the analogy approach.

Answer 15

The analogy approach is when you use a solution to a similar problem solved earlier in order to help you solve a new problem.

Question 16

What are problem isomorphs?

Answer 16

Problem isomorphs are a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details.

Question 17

What are surface features?

Answer 17

Surface features are the specific objects and terms (i.e. details) used in the question that are often irrelevant to the underlying core of the problem. People who use the analogy strategy often pay attention to the surface features instead of the structural features.

Question 18

What are structural features?

Answer 18

Structural features is the term for the underlying core of the problem that needs to be understood in order to solve it correctly.

Question 19

Describe the means-end heuristic.

Answer 19

The means-ends heuristic is an approach to problem solving that consists of two components: (1) dividing the problem into multiple smaller problems, called subproblems, and (2) reducing the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each subproblem. It requires identifying the desired ends and then figuring out the means (or methods) to reach them.

Question 20

Describe the hill-climbing heuristic.

Answer 20

The hill-climbing heuristic is when people reach a choice point and from between a set of alternatives they select the one that seems to lead most directly to their goal. It encourages the most direct alternative to reaching short-term goals. The main weakness is that the indirect alternative may have greater long-term benefits.

Question 21

What are the domains in which experts differ from novices?

Answer 21

1. knowledge base
2. memory
3. problem-solving strategies
4. speed and accuracy
5. metacognitive skills

Question 22

Define mental set.

Answer 22

Mental set is when the same solution used in previous problems is applied, even though there is a different, easier way to solve the problem.

Question 23

How are mental sets related to mindsets?

Answer 23

The concept of mental set is related to the concept of fixed mindset. A fixed mindset is when you believe that you have a set amount of intelligence and other skills and cannot perform better regardless of how much effort you make. People with a fixed mindset tend to give up on trying to improve their abilities. In contrast, people with a growth mindset believe that intelligence and other skills can be cultivated and they challenge themselves to perform better.

Question 24

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 24

Functional fixedness is when we assign a stable or fixed function to an object. As a result, people do not think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping solve a problem.

Question 25

How are functional fixedness and mental set related?

Answer 25

Functional fixedness and mental set both occur when top-down processing is overactive. Strategies that are rational and typically effective are applied too rigidly causing loss of efficacy or mistakes. The key difference is that functional fixedness refers to the way we think about physical objects while mental set refers to our problem-solving strategies.

Question 26

What is gender stereotype?

Answer 26

Gender stereotype refers to the beliefs and opinions that people associate with males and females.

Question 27

What is stereotype threat?

Answer 27

Stereotype threat is when people are hampered by a negative stereotype about belonging to a group that is perceived as being less competent in a specific area. This theory proposes that, when these individuals are reminded of their membership in this group, their performance may suffer.

Question 28

What factors explain stereotype threat?

Answer 28

1. arousal

2. thought suppression

Question 29

What are insight problems?

Answer 29

Insight problems are problem-solving situations in which a problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into consciousness. The problem solver immediately realizes that the new solution is correct.

Question 30

What are noninsight problems?

Answer 30

Noninsight problems are problems that a person solves gradually, by using memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies.

Question 31

How do insight and noninsight problems differ in terms of top-down processing?

Answer 31

Top-down processing can prevent people from solving an insight problem. In contrast, noninsight problems benefit from using top-down processing.

Question 32

How do insight and noninsight problems differ in terms of metacognition?

Answer 32

When people are working on noninsight problems, their confidence builds gradually. When they are working on insight problems, they get a sudden leap in confidence when they are close to a correct solution.

Question 33

Define creativity.

Answer 33

Creativity in problem solving involves finding solutions that are both novel and useful.

Question 34

Describe Guilford’s divergent production approach.

Answer 34

Guilford’s concept of divergent production is a measure of creativity that emphasizes the number of different responses made to a test item. To earn a high score on Guilford’s test items, test takers have to explore the initial problem from many different directions and overcome functional fixedness. This is in contrast to finding the single best answer to the problem.

Question 35

What are three observations about the nature of creativity listed by Matlin and Farmer?

Answer 35

(1) Creativity includes both convergent and divergent thinking
(2) Creativity is associated with brain regions in both the left and right hemispheres
(3) Creativity can occur when we use focused attention (conscious attention) as well as when we use defocused attention (altered state of consciousness)

Question 36

Define intrinsic motivation.

Answer 36

Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to work on a task for its own sake, because it is interesting, exciting, or personally challenging.

Question 37

Define extrinsic motivation.

Answer 37

Extrinsic motivation is the motivation to work on a task in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition rather than because the task is enjoyable.