Chapter 11- Emotional Behaviors

Question 1

What is Emotion?

Answer 1

Psychologists define emotion in terms of these components
Cognition - (This is a dangerous situation)
Action (Run for the nearest exit)
Feeling (I feel frightened)
Physiological changes

Question 2

Emotions and Autonomic Arousal

How it arouse the autonomic nervous system (book)

Answer 2

Emotional situations arouse the autonomic nervous system
Most situations evoke a combination of sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal

book : Emotional situations arouse the autonomic nervous system , which has 2 branches - the sympathetic and the parasympathetic

Again, the sympathetic : fight or flight response
parasympathetic : increase digestion, and other processes that save energy

However, each situation evokes its own special mixture of sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal.

example, nausea is associated with sympathetic stimulation of the stomach (decreasing its contractions and secretions) and parasympathetic stimulation of the intestines and salivary glands .

Question 3

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Answer 3

So, how does the autonomic NS relate to emotions ?
Common sense holds that first we feel an emotion , which then changes our heart rate and prompt other responses. (book)
James-Lange theory suggests that autonomic arousal and skeletal action occurs first in an emotion
The emotion felt is the label we give the arousal of the organs and muscles

What we experience as an emotion is the label we give to our response: I am afraid because I run away or
I am angry because I attack (book)

Cognitive aspect come first ( appraisal of the situation) –> then action —> then the feeling aspect

check image at slide 6

Question 4

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion—Predictions

Answer 4

James-Lange theory leads to two predictions:

1) People with a weak autonomic or skeletal response should feel less emotion
2) Increasing one’s response should enhance an emotion

Question 5

Emotions and Autonomic Arousal—Pure Autonomic Failure

Research findings

Answer 5

Research findings
Paralyzed people report feeling emotion to the same degree as prior to their injury (This finding indicates that emotions do not require feedback from muscle movements)

expect: that people would report no emotions.
Pure autonomic failure
Output from autonomic nervous system to body fails (Heartbeat and other organs activities continues but the NS no longer regulate them)
People with this condition report feeling same emotions, but less intensely (ex: refer to the cognitive aspect: Yes, im angry, because this is a situation that calls for anger. But they do not feel the anger, or if they do, they feel it weakly.)
Suggests other factors are involved in the perception of emotion

Question 6

Emotions and Autonomic Arousal—BOTOX

Answer 6

BOTOX blocks transmissions at synapses and nerve-muscle junctions
People with BOTOX injections report:
Weaker than usual emotional responses after watching short videos
Implies body change is important part of feeling an emotion
However, people with certain types of brain damage show normal emotional responses

Question 7

Is Physiological Arousal Sufficient for Emotions?

Answer 7

According to the James-Lange theory, emotional feelings result from the body’s actions
Panic attacks are marked by intense sympathetic nervous system arousal (rapid heartbeat, fast breathing, etc.)
Only if perceived as occurring spontaneously

Creating certain body actions may also slightly influence emotion
Smiling slightly increases happiness
Inducing a frown leads to the rating of stimuli as slightly less pleasant
Indicates that perception of the body’s actions do contribute to emotional feeling
However, body’s actions are not required

Question 8

Is Emotion a Useful Concept?

Answer 8

An emotion is usually considered a coherent “whole”
However, it has three or more aspects (cognition, feeling and action)
All aspects do not always occur together

Question 9

The Limbic System

Emotions

Answer 9

Emotional experiences arouse many areas of the brain
The limbic system includes the forebrain areas surrounding the thalamus
Traditionally regarded as critical for emotion
PET and fMRI studies suggest particular cortical areas are activated during an emotional experience

Question 10

Brain Imaging Studies

Answer 10

Recent review of brain imaging studies indicated no strong evidence exists for localization of emotions
No brain area is critical for emotion in general without contributing to other behavioral aspects
check slide 16 for image

Question 11

Theory of Lisa Feldman Barrett

Answer 11

Emotions are a category in the same sense that weeds are a category
Nothing in nature makes weeds different from flowers
Perception (for weeds) and social construct (for emotion) are the distinguishing factors

Question 12

Do People Have a Limited Number of Basic Emotions?

Answer 12

Main support for the idea of basic emotions
Facial expressions exist for happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise, and perhaps other emotions
We rarely interpret emotion based solely on facial expressions
Two or more emotions can be present in a single facial expression
Context and gestures important

An alternative view
Emotional feelings vary along two continuous dimensions
Example: weak to strong, pleasant to unpleasant, approach versus avoid

check image on slide 20

Question 13

Attack and Escape Behaviors

Answer 13

Most of the vigorous emotional behaviors we observe in animals fall into the categories of Attack and escape
These behaviors and their corresponding emotions (anger and fear) are Closely related physiologically and behaviorally

Question 14

Attack Behaviors

Answer 14

Attack behaviors depend on the individual and the situation
Example: if an hamster intrude into another territory , the home hamster sniffs the intruder and eventually attacks , but usually not at once.
Initial attack causes increase activity in the corticomedial area of the amygdala, an structure in the temporal lobe.
Increases victim hamster’s probability of attacking back when faced with subsequent attack

so, if another hamster intrudes , the home hamster attack faster and more vigorously than before.

Book: If we directly stimulate the corticomedial amygdala, a hamster is primed to attack, even without the previous experience of fighting.

Human behavior is similar to this regard : After someone has insulted you, you become more aggressive , and that mood can last. Even though one person has irritated you, you might yell at someone else.

Question 15

Heredity and Environment in Violence

Answer 15

Individual differences in aggressive, violent, or antisocial behavior depend on both heredity and environment
Several studies had found that violence is particularly enhance in ppl with both a genetic predisposition and a troubled early environment.

Environment
Witness or victim of violence in childhood
Living in a violent neighborhood
Abused children are more likely to express violent behavior
Exposure to lead harms developing brains

Heredity
Twin studies indicate significant amount of heritability although there is some debate about experimental design
MAOA gene (This enzyme breaks down the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin)

—low activity form shows a link to aggression
There still seems to be a high interaction between genetics and the environment in which a person was raised

Among those who were seriously maltreated in childhood, the rate of antisocial behavior was significantly higher for those with low MAO_A activity

Not clear why decreased MAO_A should be linked to increased aggression .

Question 16

Genes, Environment, and Antisocial Behavior in Men

Answer 16

check figure on slide 33
Results of a study, in which investigators compared people who had genetic differences in the production of the enzyme monoamine oxidase A

Question 17

Effect of Hormones—Aggressive Behavior

Answer 17

Male aggressive behavior heavily depends on testosterone

Young men (highest amount of testerone lvl) have highest rates of aggressive behaviors and violent crimes

On average, men engage in more aggressive and violent behaviors than women

Women also commit violent acts, but they are usually minor attacks.

Increasing testosterone in women
Women’s task was to examine photos of faces and try to identify the emotion
Most became less accurate at recognizing facial expressions of anger.

Other research, shows that testosterone increases responses of the amygdala to photos showing angry expressions.
Increased the amount of time looking at angry faces
Results in more arguing during collaborative tasks

Increases the responses of emotion-related areas.

check slide 35 for pic

Question 18

Serotonin Synapses and Aggressive Behavior

Answer 18

Several lines of evidence link aggressive behavior to low serotonin release.

Impulsiveness and aggressive behavior have been linked to low serotonin release

Serotonin turnover:
The amount of serotonin that neurons released, absorbed, and replaced

When neurons release a NT such as serotonin, they reabsorb most of it and synthesize enough to replace the amount that washed away. Thus, the amount in the neuron is fairly constant for the NT. We have no idea how much is release.
We use body fluids such as from CSF to measure how much is release. (book)

Turnover is Measured by the concentration of 5-HIAA (serotonin main metabolite) in the cerebrospinal fluid

check image on slide 37

Question 19

Serotonin Synapses and Aggressive Behavior—Studies

Answer 19

Experimental results in several genetic strains of mice

Social isolation lowered serotonin turnover by the greatest amount in strains that reacted with greatest amount of fighting after isolation

Serotonin activity is lower in juvenile rodents than in adults, and fighting is more frequent in the juveniles

Thoughts : Perhaps in humans too, low serotonin activity may be a reason for increased aggressiveness in adolescent males

Studies in humans

Low serotonin turnover found in people with history of violent behavior, including people convicted of arson and other violent crimes
and people who attempt suicide by violent means

Relationship between serotonin and aggression is small

Serotonin role is not specific to aggression

Cannot be used to make predictions about an individual

Question 20

Testosterone, Serotonin, and Cortisol

Answer 20

According to a growing consensus, aggressive behavior does not correlate strongly with any one chemical because it depends on a combination

Testosterone, facilitates aggressive, assertive, dominant behavior

Serotonin tends to inhibit impulsive behaviors

Cortisol inhibits aggression

Aggressive behavior depends on ratio of testosterone to cortisol

Question 21

Fear and Anxiety

Answer 21

Proneness to approach, avoidance, and anxiety varies with the situation and the individual

Role of the amygdala:
Important for enhancing the startle reflex
book: regulate current level of anxiety.

Startle reflex
Extremely fast response to unexpected loud noises

Question 22

Fear and Anxiety—Startle Reflex

Answer 22

Auditory information stimulates an area of the pons that commands tensing of neck and other muscles
Information reaches the pons within 3–8 milliseconds

Startle response occurs within two-tenths of a second

Startle reflex is more vigorous if already tense

Startle reflex can be used as a behavioral measure of anxiety

Can be used with laboratory animals to explore brain mechanisms

Question 23

The Amygdala and Learned Fears

Answer 23

check image on slide 43

Question 24

Fear and Studies of Rodents

Answer 24

First measure the normal response to a loud noise

Research paired a stimulus such as light with shock

Animals learn to associate light with the shock. They present the light just before the loud noise and det. how much the light increases the startle response.

Stimulus becomes a fear signal

Stimulus previously associated with pleasure or absence of danger. Becomes a safety signal
Decreases the startle reflex

Question 25

The Amygdala and Studies of Rodents

Answer 25

Amygdala is most important for enhancing the startle reflex.

Cells in the amygdala get input from pain fibers, vision, and hearing so the circuitry is well suited to establishing condtioned fears.

Different paths through the amygdala responsible for fear of pain, fear of predators, and fear of aggressive members of same species

One part of the amygdala controls breathing changes
Another helps identify safe places

Output from the amygdala controls autonomic fear responses
Also controls avoidance and approach responses
Rat with damage to amygdala shows normal startle reflex
but Signals presented before the noise do not modify reflex

book: In a study , in intact rats, showed a moderate startle reflex to the loud noise and an enhanced response if the light preceded the noise

rats with damage in the path from the amygdala to hindbrain, showed the same startle reflex with or without the light
hence, damage to the amygdala interferes with the learning of fear responses more than the retention of fear responses previously learned.

Question 26

Other Studies of Rodents

Answer 26

Toxoplasma gondii
Protozoan that infects many mammals but reproduces only in cats
Cats excrete parasite’s eggs
Can infect burrowing rats that come into contact with eggs
Damages the rat’s amygdala
Rat approaches cat without fear and gets eaten
Parasite finds its way back into the cat

Question 27

Long-Term Fear and Anxiety

Answer 27

If a person is attacked or has a fearful experience, he/she becomes fearful in a wide variety of circumstances
Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis
Brain area that controls long-term, generalized emotional arousal

Question 28

The Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis

Answer 28

check image at slide 39

Question 29

Studies of Monkeys—Klüver-Bucy Syndrome

Answer 29

Klüver-Bucy syndrome
Effect of Damage to the amygdala in monkeys

Monkeys with this syndrome are tame/placid

Display less than normal fear of snakes and larger, more dominant monkeys

Most prominent effect is that they Have impaired social behaviors, including learning what to fear

Non-damaged monkeys with a vigorously active amygdala show fear to noise/intruder or unfamiliar individuals

Question 30

Response of the Human Amygdala to Visual Stimuli

Answer 30

In humans,like animals, the amygdala is activated during fear conditioning , where ppl learn that a signal predict shock.

fMRI studies show the amygdala responds strongly to photos that arouse fear or photos of faces showing fear

Response from the amygdala is stronger when the meaning is unclear and requires some processing

Amygdala Responds more strongly to an angry face directed toward the viewer and frightened faces directed elsewhere

book: An angry face directed at you is threatening, whereas a fearful face directed towards you is puzzling ( “why would someone look at me in fear. Im not scary. )
In contrast, a angry person directed to the side is less upsetting (that person is angry with someone else)
A fearful face directed to the side is more upsetting (Something over there is dangerous! I need to find out what?)

check pic on slide 52

Question 31

Individual Differences in Amygdala Response and Anxiety

Answer 31

People’s tendency toward anxiety remains fairly consistent over time

People with genes for reduced serotonin uptake have increased responses to threat

Soldiers with initial high levels of amygdala response showed more combat stress

Anxiety depends on more than just the amygdala
Reappraisal as coping mechanism

Question 32

Damage to the Human Amygdala

Answer 32

In humans, amygdala damage does not result in the loss of emotion
ex: they report that they feel fear, angry , happiness.

Effects of damage

Individuals can classify emotional pictures without difficulty
- Fail to focus their attention on emotional stimuli the way other ppl do
ex: when a normal amygdala person looks at a pic of something emotional like one person attacking another, they remember the emotional part and forget the background details.
A person with damaged to the amygdala will remember the details of story and the emotional part

Individuals experience little
arousal from viewing unpleasant photos

They have problems identifying fear or disgust in people

Question 33

Urbach-Wiethe Disease

Answer 33

Rare genetic condition that causes calcium to accumulate in the amygdala until it wastes away

Case study of person called SM

Experiences fearlessness

Correctly drew faces with various emotions but had trouble drawing a fearful face

Did not generally look at people’s eyes, focus more on the nose and mouth of each photo

Lack of fear is dangerous to her

check image at slide 56

Question 34

Recognizing Facial Expressions

Answer 34

Amygdala damage affects the ability to recognize facial expressions of fear or disgust
When recognized, rated as less intense than other people

Question 35

Eye Expressions for Fear and Happiness

Answer 35

check image at slide 58

The eye whites alone enable most people to guess that the person on the left was feeling afraid

Question 36

Anxiety Disorders

panic disorder

Answer 36

Frequent periods of anxiety and occasional attacks of rapid breathing, increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling

More common in women than men, and in adolescents and young adults

Possible genetic component
15 percent of people with joint laxity

Linked to hypothalamus abnormalities

Decreased GABA, increased orexin

book: Gaba, inhibitory N.T, inhibits anxiety.
CCK (excitatory neuromodulators) , increases anxiety.

Question 37

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Answer 37

Frequent distressing recollections and nightmares about traumatic event
Vigorous reactions to noises and other stimuli
Not all people who endure trauma get PTSD
Smaller hippocampus may predispose people to PTSD

Question 38

Relief From Anxiety—Benzodiazepines

Answer 38

The most commonly used anti-anxiety drugs
Examples: diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax)

Bind to the GABAA receptor, and facilitate the effects of GABA
(which includes a site that binds GABA as well as sites that modify the sensitivity of the GABA site)

At the center of the GABAa receptor is a chloride channel.
When open, it permits Cl- to cross the membrane into the neuron , hyperpolarizing the cell.

Benzodiazepines = facilitate GABA binding
Then GABA binds to it and open a Cl- channel

Exert their anti-anxiety effects in the amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, and other areas

check image at slide 62

Question 39

Alcohol as an Anxiety Reducer

Answer 39

Alcohol effects on GABA receptors responsible for the anti-anxiety and intoxicating effects
(alcohol promotes the flow of chloride ions through the GABAa receptor complex by binding to specific site on the receptor.

The experimental drug Ro-15-4513 blocks the effect of alcohol on the GABAA receptors complex .
It also blocks other effects of alcohol on the system.

check image at slide 64

Figure 11.20 Two rats that were given the same amount of alcohol
The rat on the right was later given the experimental drug Ro15-4513. Within 2 minutes, its performance and coordination improved significantly.

Question 40

Stress and Health

Answer 40

Behavioral medicine
Emphasizes the effects on health of diet, smoking, exercise, stressful experiences, and other behaviors

Emotions and other experiences influence people’s illness and recovery patterns

Question 41

Stress and the General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 41

Hans Selye (1979) defined stress as the non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it

General adaptation syndrome: threats to the body activate a general response to stress

Question 42

Stages in the General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 42

Alarm stage: increased sympathetic nervous system activity, readying the body for brief emergency activity.

Resistance stage: sympathetic response declines; adrenal cortex continues releasing cortisol and other hormones to prolong alertness, fight infections, and heal wounds.

Exhaustion stage: occurs after prolonged stress; individual no longer has energy to sustain responses
The individual is tired. inactive, and vulnerable because the nervous system and immune system no longer have the energy to sustain their heightened response.

Question 43

Concepts of Stress

Answer 43

Sapolsky (1998) argues that the nature of today’s crises are more prolonged (such as advancing in a career, paying a mortgage, or caring for a relative with a chronic health problem.

Accounts for widespread stress-related illnesses and psychiatric problems in industrial societies

If a Long-term, almost inescapable issue activate the general adaptation syndrome, the result can be exhaustion

Question 44

Stress and the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Cortex Axis

Answer 44

Stress activates two systems in the body:

1) The sympathetic nervous system: “fight or flight” response that prepares the body for brief emergency responses
2) The HPA axis: the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex

The HPA axis becomes the dominant response to prolonged stressors

Activation of the hypothalamus induces the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
then it stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol

Cortisol helps to mobilize energies to fight a difficult situation (elevates blood levels of sugar and other nutrients)

Many researchers refers to cortisol as the stress hormone and use measurement of cortisol lvl as an indication of someones recent stress lvl. (book)

Compared to the autonomic N.S , the HPA axis reacts more slowly, but it becomes the dominant response to prolonged stressors, such as living with an abusive parent or spouse.

check pic on slide 71

Question 45

The Immune System
B -cells
antibodies
antigens

Answer 45

The immune system protects the body against viruses and bacteria by producing leukocytes (white blood cells)

There are several type of leukocytes : B cell, T cell and natural killer cell

B-cells: leukocytes that mature in the bone marrow and secrete antibodies

Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins that attach to particular kinds of antigens

Antigens: surface proteins that are antibody-generator molecules

Question 46

T-cell

Natural killer cells

Answer 46

T-cells
Attack intruders directly and help other T-cells or B-cells to multiply
matures in the thymus gland

Natural killer cells
Leukocytes that attack tumor cells and cells infected with viruses
attacks all intruders

whereas B cell and T cell are attacks a particular kind of foreign antigen

Question 47

what happens during a infection

Answer 47

During an infection, leukocytes and other cells produce small proteins called cytokines

Combat infection and communicate with the brain to inform of illness
Cytokines are the immune system way of telling the brain that the body is ill.

Cytokines stimulate the release of prostaglandins to produce fever, sleepiness, lack of energy

Sleep and inactivity conserve energy to fight illness

check diagram at slide 75

Question 48

Psychoneuroimmunology

Answer 48

The N.S have more control than we might have guessed over the immune system

Psychoneuroimmnunology deals with the way experiences alter the immune system
Also examines how the immune system influences the central nervous system

Question 49

Effects of Stress on the Immune System

Answer 49

In response to a stressful experience, the nervous system activates the immune system
Increases production of natural killer cells, leukocytes and cytokines
The cytokines combat infections but also trigger prostaglandins which also trigger the brain to produce the same symptoms as if one were ill.

Question 50

Prolonged Stress Response

Answer 50

Produces symptoms similar to depression
Weakens the immune system

Can harm the hippocampus.
Stress release cortisol, and cortisol enhances metabolic activity throughout the body. When metabolic activity is high in the hippocampus, its cells become more vulnerable.

Toxins or overstimulation more likely to damage or kill neurons in the hippocampus

Question 51

Controlling Stress Responses

Answer 51

Studies in mice have revealed genes that relate to being more vulnerable or more resilient

Methods to control stress responses
Breathing routines, exercise, meditation, distraction, and addressing issues

Social support from a loved one helps to reduce stress

Reduces response in several brain areas, including the prefrontal cortex

Question 52

Resilience
People’s responses to stress vary
What determines resilience

Answer 52

Genes
Social support
Physical health
Previous stressful experiences
Resilience is not easy to investigate