Chapter 11 Flashcards
Motivation
An internal state or condition that directs behaviour and is goal-directed
Motivation Theories
Instinct Theory: people are motivated by their biological (INNATE) instinct
Instincts: Inborn behaviour tendencies, activated by stimuli in our environments
Arousal Theory: we are motivated to pursue an optimum level of stimulation (arousal)
Yerkes-Dodson Law: Law stating that ideal performance on a task occurs when the arousal level is optimized to the difficulty level of the task
Incentive Theory: An incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour
Extrinsic Motivation: The pursuit of an activity for external rewards such as money or fame
Intrinsic Motivation: The pursuit of activity for its own sake
What Happens in the Brain
l Brain regions associated with dopamine release are activated during a pleasurable experience and direct future behaviour
l Dopamine pathway: ventral tegmental area nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex
Multiple Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Physiological Needs
Hunger, thirst, air, sleep
Most basic and demanding needs must be satisfied before we can move up the hierarchy
- Safety Needs
Security, stability, protection, structure, order
Allows a sense of predictability
Reduces feelings of chaos, fear and danger
- Belongingness and Love Needs
Friendship, love, family, intimate relationship, identification with a group
If not satisfied, we feel lonely, alone and empty
- Esteem Needs:
Self-Esteem: Need to perceived oneself as competent/achieving
Recognition: Need for admiration and respect from others
If not fulfilled, we feel discouraged and inferior
Self-Actualization
Focus on developing ourselves
Few people reach this stage
Growth Needs
Summary of Motivation Theory:
Range and Diversity of Human Motives
The motivation of Hunger and Eating
Biological Motivation Factor
Environmental factors
Obesity
Eating disorders
Brain Signals:
Arcuate nucleus in the hypothalamus contains 2 groups of neurons
1) sensitive to incoming hunger signals
2) sensitive to satiety signals
Hormonal regulation:
Insulin: secretion of insulin associated with increased hunger
Leptin: when leptin levels are high, we feel less hungry
Hunger depends on complex interactions between neural circuits, neurotransmitter systems, digestive processes and hormonal fluctuations
Heaviness is not always caused by overeating
Body Weight Set point
A weight that individuals typically return to even after dieting or overeating
Identical twins are more similar in body weight than fraternal
Same whether raised together or apart
Genetic factors play a large role in body weight
Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Food Availability and
Related Cues
Palatability: people eat more when food tastes good
Quantity Available: people eat more when portions are bigger
Variety: people eat more when there are more varieties of food available
Presence of others: people eat 44% more with others than alone; larger the crowd, more people eat
With one caveat: women eat less in front of men they don’t know very well
Weight and Prevalence of Disease
Causes of Obesity:
Genetic Predisposition:
Toxic Environment
Salt, sugar, fat content of food
Sexual Motivation & Behaviour
Who is Having Sex?
The Human Sexual Response
Evolutionary Analyses of Human Sexual Behaviour
Sexual Orientation
Who is Having Sex?
28% of 15-17 year olds have had sexual intercourse
80% of 20-24 year olds have had sexual intercourse
One third of sexually active 20-24 year olds have had more than one partner in the past year
People who lost their virginity by age 13 are more likely to have multiple sex partners than people who lose their virginity later
Girls with weak self-concepts at age 13 are more likely to have sex early than girls with strong self-concepts
The Human Sexual Response and Summary of Sexual Desire
Summary of Research on Sexual Desire
“Across many different studies and measures, men have been shown to have more frequent and more intense sexual desires than women, as reflected in spontaneous thoughts about sex, frequency and variety of sexual fantasies, desired frequency of intercourse, desired number of partners, masturbation, liking for various sexual practices, willingness to forgo sex and other measures. No contrary findings (indicating stronger sexual motivation among women) were found”
Gender and Potential Mates’
Physical Attractiveness
Gender and Potential Mates’
Financial Prospects
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation: a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex or either sex
Heterosexuals seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex
Homosexuals seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of the same sex
Bisexuals seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of either sex
Sexual Orientation
In the past, homosexuality was seen as deviant
Was a disorder in the DSM until 1973
Sexual Orientation as a Continuum
Sexual Orientation
Factors Which DO NOT explain Homosexuality
A smothering mother
An absent father
Emotional problems
Same sex play in childhood and adolescence
Parental practices
Role models
Seduction by an older adult
Biological Explanations for Homosexuality
Genetic influence on homosexuality
Sexual Orientation: Genetic Links
Identical twins have highest concordance rates for sexual orientation
Same pattern for males and females
This suggests some genetic link in sexual orientation
Biological Explanations for Homosexuality
Hormonal Differences:
In families with multiple male offspring, the youngest child has a higher chance of being homosexual than the older brothers
Maternal antibodies may lessen the “masculinizing” action of fetus’ male sex hormones
Biological Explanations for Homosexuality
Brain Anatomy
¡ Anterior hypothalamuses of heterosexual men are twice as large as those in women and homosexual men
l i.e., size of anterior hypothalamus of male homosexuals is similar to size of anterior hypothalamus of women (both lesbian and heerosexual women)
Affiliation and Achievement Motives
The pain of rejection
Affiliation and Achievement Motives
Need for achievement
A learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area
Self-Determination
Instinctive feelings of competence, relatedness and autonomy that give purpose to life
Intrinsic motivation is linked to self-determination
Emotion
Emotion: an intrapersonal state in response to an internal or external event
Three components of emotion:
Physiological - bodily arousal
Heart rate, temperature, and breathing changes
Cognitive - subjective appraisal and interpretation of one’s feelings and environment
Behavioural - physical expression of the emotion
Verbal or non-verbal emotional expressions
Physiological Changes and Emotion
Elements of Emotion
Primary (basic) emotions
Emotions considered to be universal and biologically based
Anger, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear and disgust
Secondary emotions
Emotions that develop with cognitive maturity and vary across individuals and cultures
Detecting Emotions: Does the Body Lie?
Polygraph testing relies on autonomic nervous system arousal.
Typical measures: Galvanic Skin Response Pulse, blood pressure Breathing Fidgeting
Polygraph Tests
Empirical support is weak and conflicting
Test is inadmissible in most courts
It is illegal to use for most job screening
Many government agencies continue to use for screening
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory: the physiological response we experience to an event is interpreted by us as an emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory: the experience of emotion and bodily arousal occur simultaneously
Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory: it is the way you interpret the physiological reaction that determines the emotion
Facial Feedback: The process by which the facial muscles send messages to the brain about the basic emotion being expressed
