Chapter 10

Question 1

What is the difference between motives and motivation?

Answer 1

• -Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people in certain directions, propel us to achieve important goals (driven by social/psychological factors while drives come from within the person)
• -Motivation involves goal-directed behaviour

Question 2

What is the drive theory to motivation?

Answer 2

–A drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension (pursue actions that will lead to drive reduction)
•Instinct: an unlearned behaviour (automatic)
•Homeostasis: when the body is in balance ex. not enough food, high body temperature
•Need: a state of tension within the person (unbalance) ex hungry, too hot
•Drive: the motivation that results from the need
– Drives are based on needs, and as need is satisfied, tension is reduced
–However, homeostasis appears irrelevant to some human motives (ex. a “thirst” for knowledge, eating when not hungry, etc)

deficit –> need —>drive —>behaviours needed to satisfy the need/ thoughts and fantasies

Question 3

What is the incentive theory to motivation?

Answer 3

• -An incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour (ice cream, a juicy steak, a monetary prize, approval from friends, an A on an exam) –the properties of a reinforcer
• -Incentives can be positive or negative. The positive incentive of a good grade motivates studying behaviour. The negative incentive of failing a course motivates you to avoid skipping class.
• -However, people can’t always obtain the goals they desire: Expectancy-value models
• -According to expectancy-value models, one’s motivation to pursue a particular course of action will depend on two factors: (1) expectancy about one’s chances of attaining the incentive and (2) the value of the desired incentive. (Ex. likelihood of getting the promotion and how appealing/valuable that promotion is to you)

Question 4

How are drive and incentive theories to motivation contrasted?

Answer 4

• -Contrasted as push-versus-pull theories
• -Drive theories emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions. Incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions
• -According to drive theories, the source of motivation lies within the organism. According to incentive theories, the source of motivation lies outside the organism, in the environment

Question 5

What is the evolutionary theory to motivation?

Answer 5

• -human motives and those of other species are the products of evolution, just as anatomical characteristics are
• -They argue that natural selection favours behaviours that maximize reproductive success
• -ex. consider, also, the affiliation motive, or need for belongingness. The adaptive benefits of affiliation for our ancestors probably included help with offspring, collaboration in hunting and gathering, mutual defence, opportunities for sexual interaction, and so forth

Question 6

What is the brain biology of hunger?

Answer 6

• -it was once thought that stomach contraction (growling) causes hunger but later research showed that people continue to experience hunger even after their stomachs are removed
• -The lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) are elements in the neural circuitry that regulate hunger (not key elements)
• -the arcuate nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus play a larger role in the modulation of hunger
• -the arcuate nucleus has been singled out as especially important because it appears to contain a group of neurons that are sensitive to incoming hunger signals and another group of neurons that respond to satiety signals
• -Contemporary theories of hunger focus more on neural circuits (interconnected with parallel processing) that pass through areas of the hypothalamus rather than on anatomical centres in the brain

Question 7

What is the digestive and hormonal

regulation of hunger?

Answer 7

• -the vagus nerve carries information about the stretching of the stomach walls that indicates when the stomach is full
• -the stomach secretes ghrelin, which causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger.
• -after food is consumed, the upper intestine releases a hormone called CCK that delivers satiety signals to the brain, thus reducing hunger
• • leptin contributes to the long-term regulation of hunger: Leptin is produced by fat cells throughout the body and released into the bloodstream. Leptin circulates through the bloodstream and ultimately provides the hypothalamus with information about the body’s fat stores (high leptin, hunger diminishes and low leptin, signals brain for increased hunger)
• -Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, is also sensitive to fluctuations in the body’s fat stores.
• -The hormonal signals that influence hunger (the fluctuations of insulin, ghrelin, CCK, and leptin) all seem to converge in the hypothalamus, especially the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei

Question 8

What factors influence food consumption?

Answer 8

• -Palatability: the better food tastes, the more of it people consume
• -Quantity available: referred to as the bin model or bin heuristic, a powerful determinant of the amount eaten is the amount available. Ex. in one study children requested more cereal when they had larger bowls
• -Variety: humans and animals increase their consumption when a greater variety of foods is avail- able. As you eat a specific food, its incentive value declines (sensory- specific satiety). If only a few foods are available, the appeal of all of them can decline quickly
• -Presence of others: on average, individuals eat 44 percent more when they eat with other people as opposed to eating alone. The more people present, the more people tend to eat (people tend to use each other as guides). However, when women eat in the presence of an opposite-sex person they do not know well, they tend to reduce their intake. When asked afterward, people seem oblivious to the fact that their eating is influenced by the presence of others
• -Stress: has varied effects on eating, as some individuals eat less, but estimates suggest that roughly 40–50 percent of people increase their food consumption in times of stress, and shift toward less healthy food choices

Question 9

How do environmental cues affect hunger/food consumption?

Answer 9

• • studies by researchers have shown that hunger and food intake can be increased by exposure to pictures, written descriptions, and video depictions of attractive foods
• -people tend to be unaware of how soda and food ads influence their eating behaviour
• -eating is often a social action: social cues based on the behaviour of others are some of the most important determinants of food intake. The presence of others generally inhibits eating but, under certain specific conditions, eating may increase

Question 10

How do learned preferences and habits influence hunger/food consumption?

Answer 10

• -Taste preferences are partly a function of learned associations formed through classical conditioning
• -However, humans do have some innate taste preferences of a general sort (preference for sweet taste, preference for high-fat foods, unlearned preference for salt emerges at around four months of age in humans)
• -To a large degree, food preferences are a matter of exposure, but geographical, cultural, religious, and ethnic factors limit people’s exposure to certain foods
• -People generally prefer familiar foods but repeated exposures to a new food usually lead to increased liking

Question 11

What is obesity?

Answer 11

• -obesity: the condition of being overweight
• -body mass index (BMI)— weight (in kilograms) divided by height (in metres) squared (kg/m2
• -A BMI of 25.0–29.9 is typically regarded as overweight, and a BMI over 30 is gen- erally considered obese
• -over the course of history, most humans lived in environments characterized by fierce competition for limited, unreliable food resources. Thus, they evolved a propensity to consume more food than immediately necessary when the opportunity pre- sented itself because food might not be available later. Excess calories were stored in the body (as fat) to prepare for future food shortages
• -Unfortunately, obesity is a big health problem that elevates one’s mortality risk

Question 12

What is the genetic predisposition to obesity?

Answer 12

• -In an influential twin study, Stunkard and colleagues (1990) found that identical twins reared apart were far more similar in BMI than fraternal twins reared together
• -In another study of over 4000 twins, Allison and colleagues estimated that genetic factors account for 61 percent of the variation in weight among men and 73 percent among women

Question 13

How does excessive eating and inadequate exercise influence obesity?

Answer 13

• -Unhealthy foods are heavily advertised, and these marketing efforts are very effective in getting people to increase their consumption of such foods
• -The inability to control over eating has become so common that some theorists are coming around to the view that highly processed, high-fat, high-sugar foods may literally be addictive
• -Modern conveniences, such as cars and elevators; changes in the world of work, such as the shift to more desk jobs; and increases in TV viewing and video-gaming have conspired to make our lifestyles more sedentary than ever before.

Question 14

Why do people who lose weight gain it back after?

Answer 14

• -after significant weight loss, individuals’ energy expenditure tends to decline (burn calories more slowly)
• -reduced fat stores result in reduced levels of the hormone leptin. Low levels of leptin fuel increased hunger
• -Set-point theory proposes that the body monitors fat- cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable. This set point is each individual’s natural point of stability for weight
• -It turns out that the physiological processes that defend against weight loss are much stronger than those that defend against weight gain
• -Probably because in ancestral environments where food resources were limited and unreliable, defending against weight loss would have been more adaptive for survival than defending against weight gain

Question 15

How does dietary restraint contribute to obesity?

Answer 15

• -To lose weight, restrained eaters go hungry much of the time, but they are constantly thinking about food. However, when their cognitive control is disrupted, they become disinhibited and eat to excess
• -A variety of events, such as drinking alcohol or experiencing emotional distress, can affect restrained eaters’ control
• -But for many, the most common source of disinhibition is simply the perception that they have cheated on their diet. “I’ve already blown it,” they think to themselves after perhaps just one high-calorie appetizer, “so I might as well enjoy as much as I want.”
• -Dietary restraint also contributes to the tendency to overeat just before beginning a diet

Question 16

What is the biology of sexual behaviour?

Answer 16

• -Masters and Johnson divided the sexual response cycle into four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
• -During the excitement phase, muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, and blood pressure increase quickly. Vasocongestion (engorgement of blood vessels) produces penile erection and swollen testes in males. In females, vasocongestion leads to a swelling and hardening of the clitoris, expansion of the vaginal lips, and vaginal lubrication
• -During the plateau phase, physiological arousal usually continues to build, but at a much slower pace. When foreplay is lengthy, arousal tends to fluctuate in both genders.
• -Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area. After orgasm, men experience a refractory period, a time following orgasm during which they are largely unresponsive to further stimulation. Length of refractory period increases with age.
• -During the resolution phase, the physiological changes produced by sexual arousal gradually subside. If orgasm has not occurred, the reduction in sexual tension may be relatively slow

Question 17

What is the gender gap when it comes to orgasms and why?

Answer 17

• -The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, but women are more likely than men to experience more than one orgasm in a brief time period
• -women are also more likely than men to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm
• -males’ greater orgasmic consistency must be a product of evolution because it would have obvious adaptive significance for promoting men’s reproductive fitness
• -On the other hand, gender differences in the socialization of guilt feelings about sex, as well as sexual scripts and practices that are less than optimal for women, could play a part

Question 18

What is the evolutionary analysis on human sexual behaviour?

Answer 18

• -parental investment theory, which maintains that a species’ mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest (in terms of time, energy, and survival risk) to produce and nurture offspring
• -Like many mammalian species, human males are required to invest little in the production of offspring
• -Females have to invest nine months in pregnancy, and our female ancestors typically had to devote at least several additional
• -These realities place a ceiling on the number of offspring women can produce, regardless of how many males they mate with. Hence, females have little or no incentive for mating with many males. Instead, females can optimize their reproductive potential by being selective in mating.
• —This selectivity in females supposedly entails seeking partners who have the greatest ability to con- tribute toward feeding and caring for offspring.
• -men will show more interest in sexual activity, more desire for variety in sexual partners, and more willingness to engage in uncommitted sex

Question 19

What are the gender differences in patterns of sexual activity?

Answer 19

• -Men think about sex more often than women, initiate sex more often, and have more frequent and varied sexual fantasies
• -this disparity in sexual motivation only widens when people reach middle age
• -Males expressed a desire for more partners than did females in all ten world regions.
• -In a compelling field study, Clark and Hatfield (1989) had average-looking men approach female (college-age) strangers and ask if they would go back to the man’s apartment to have sex with him. None of the women agreed.
• -But when Clark and Hatfield had average- looking women approach males with the same proposition, 75 percent of the men eagerly agreed!
• -When the approached people were in a relationship, acceptance of the proposition declined considerably in men, and the gender gap shrunk, with 18 percent of men and 4 percent of women agreeing to casual sex

Question 20

What are the gender differences in mate preferences?

Answer 20

• -the parental investment theory predicts that men should place more emphasis than women on youthfulness (which allows for more reproductive years) and attractiveness (which is assumed to be correlated with health and fertility)
• -parental investment theory predicts that women should place more emphasis than men on partner characteristics such as intelligence, ambition, education, income, and social status (which are associated with the ability to provide more material resources).
• -David Buss and 50 scientists from around the world surveyed more than 10 000 people from 37 cultures about what they looked for in a mate. As predicted by parental investment theory, they found that women placed a higher value than men on potential partners’ status, ambition, and financial prospects
• -In contrast, men around the world consistently showed more interest than women in potential partners’ youthfulness and physical attractiveness

Question 21

What is the other theory as to why there are gender differences in mate preferences and sexual activity?

Answer 21

• -women’s emphasis on males’ material resources could be a by-product of cultural and economic forces rather than the result of biological imperatives (Women may have learned to value males’ economic clout because their own economic potential has historically been limited in virtually all cultures)
• -Baumeister and Twenge argue that the gender disparity in sexual motivation may be largely attributable to extensive cultural processes that serve to suppress female sexuality
• -A study found that the size of the gender gap in mating preferences is smaller in nations that exhibit greater gender equality

Question 22

What are the biological theories for sexual orientation?

Answer 22

• -there is evidence that gay males process some types of information differently than do heterosexual males and, according to neuroscientist Jennifer Steeves ifferences in brain laterality may be implicated in this difference in processing
• -In a study, conducted by Bailey and Pillard, the subjects were gay men who had either a twin brother or an adopted brother. They found that 52 percent of the subjects’ identical twins were gay, that 22 percent of their fraternal twins were gay, and that 11 percent of their adoptive brothers were gay. A companion study of lesbians yielded a similar pattern of results
• -Research also suggests that epigenetic processes that dampen or silence specific genes’ effects may influence sexual orientation
• -researchers have found elevated rates of homosexuality among women exposed to unusually high androgen levels during prenatal development
• -Several other independent lines of research suggest that atypical prenatal hormonal secretions may foster a predisposition to homosexuality
• -Females’ sexuality appears to be characterized by more plasticity than males’ sexuality and, in comparison to gay males, lesbians are less likely to trace their homosexuality back to their childhood and more likely to indicate that their attraction to the same sex emerged during adulthood

Question 23

What is affiliation, how does it affect our behaviour, and how does it relate to ostracism?

Answer 23

• -The affiliation motive is the need to associate with others and maintain social bonds
• -our need to belong has a strong evolutionary basis since bonds offer a host of survival and reproductive benefits.
• -the quality of people’s personal happiness and well-being is determined in large part by the quality of their relationships and the belief that they belong.
• -the threat of rejection triggers anxiety, jealousy, depression, and a host of other dysfunctional states.
• -Ostracism involves being ignored and excluded by others in your social environment
• -Ostracism not only affects our mood and behaviour, it even affects our brain, leading to increased activity in parts of the brain associated with feeling physical pain and showing activity patterns typically associated with unexpected outcomes

Question 24

What are the situational determinants of achievement behaviour?

Answer 24

–the tendency to pursue achievement in a particular situation depends on:
–The strength of one’s motivation to achieve success. This is viewed as a stable aspect of personality.
–One’s estimate of the probability of success for the
task at hand. This varies from task to task.
–The incentive value of success. This depends on the tangible and intangible rewards for success on the
specific task.
–the pursuit of achievement increases as the probability and incentive value of success go up
–The joint influence of these situational factors may explain why high achievers prefer tasks of intermediate difficulty
–the probability of success and the incentive value of success on tasks are interdependent to some degree (As tasks get easier, success becomes less satisfying and vice versa) thus moderately challenging tasks seem to offer the best overall value in terms of maximizing one’s sense of accomplishment
–a person’s fear of failure must also be considered to understand achievement behaviour which is a stable aspect of personality
–Thus, the relationship between achievement behaviour and fear of failure illustrates how motivation and emotion are often intertwined (emotion can cause motivation and motivation can cause emotion)

Question 25

What is emotion and what are the different components?

Answer 25

• -Emotion involves (1) a subjective conscious experience (the cognitive component), accompanied by (2) bodily arousal (the physiological component), and (3) characteristic overt expressions (the behavioural component).
• -State = Transitory. Depend more on the situation than the person
• -Trait = a pattern of emotional responses that are relatively stable across a variety of situations

Question 26

What is the cognitive component of emotion?

Answer 26

• -people often have difficulty describing their emotions to others because they are highly personal, subjective experiences.
• -emotions tend to involve automatic reactions that are difficult to regulate, but some degree of emotional control is possible and In some cases, these emotional reactions may occur at an unconscious level
• -The conscious experience of emotion includes an evaluative aspect. People characterize their emotions as pleasant or unpleasant and individuals often experience “mixed emotions” that include both pleasant and unpleasant qualities
• -Research on affective forecasting (efforts to predict one’s emotional reactions to future events) demonstrates that people reliably mispredict their future feelings in response to good and bad events
• -People tend to be reasonably accurate in anticipating whether events will generate positive or negative emotions, but they often are way off in predicting the initial intensity and duration of their emotional reactions.
• -people have many cognitive biases that insulate them from the emotional fallout of life’s difficulties and tend to be really good in rationalizing and overlooking failures, but they do not use this or factor it in when making predictions about their emotional reactions

Question 27

What is the physiological (autonomic arousal) component of emotion?

Answer 27

• -Much of the physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system
• -the galvanic skin response (GSR): an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity due to emotional arousal
• -polygraph, or lie detector, a device that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned.
• • The polygraph can’t actually detect lies. It’s really an emotion detector. It monitors key indicators of autonomic arousal, typically heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, and GSR. The assumption is that when subjects lie, they experience emotion (presumably anxiety) that produces noticeable changes in these physiological indicator
• -Part of the problem is that people who are telling the truth may experience emotional arousal and some people can lie without experiencing anxiety or autonomic arousal

Question 28

What is the physiological (affective neuroscience) component of emotion?

Answer 28

–affective neuroscience: the examination of the neurobiology of emotions
–the amygdala plays a particularly central role in the acquisition of conditioned fears
–Two routes for neural transmission
•Direct path (fast): Sensory input from sense receptors. - –>thalamus—> amygdala (stimulating an emotional response without cortical processing)
•Indirect path (detail): Sensory input from sense receptors –> thalamus –> sensory cortex –> amygdala
–the amygdala processes the information very quickly. If it detects a threat, it almost instantly triggers activity in the hypothalamus, which leads to autonomic arousal and hormonal responses.
–the processing in this pathway is extremely fast, so that emotions can be triggered even before the cortex has had a chance to really “think” about the input.
–various emotions depend on activity in neural networks that are broadly distributed across various regions of the brain, rather than that are discrete structures in the brain

Question 29

What is the behavioural component (nonverbal expressiveness) of emotion?

Answer 29

• -emotions are expressed in “body language,” or nonverbal behaviour (such as facial expressions)
• • Studies have found that subjects are generally successful in identifying six fundamental emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust on the basis of facial expressions
• -People can also identify a number of other emotions from facial expressions, such as contempt, embarrassment, shame, amusement, and sympathy, but less reliably than the basic six emotions
• -Proponents of the facial-feedback hypothesis assert that facial muscles send signals to the brain and that these signals help the brain recognize the emotion that one is experiencing
• -studies show that if subjects are instructed to contract their facial muscles to mimic facial expressions associated with certain emotions, they tend to report that they actually experience these emotions to some degree
• -Based on the facial-feedback hypothesis, researchers developed a novel treatment for depres- sion involving the injection of Botox into the fore- head to paralyze the facial muscles responsible for frowning. The assumption is that the feedback from constant frowning contributes to feelings of depres- sion. A significant reduction in depressive symptoms was seen within six weeks
• -The facial expressions that go with various emotions may be largely innate because people who have been blind since birth smile and frown much like everyone else, even though they’ve never seen a smile or frown
• -study: showing pictures of sighted and blind athletes’ facial expressions right after winning or losing a game. The facial expressions of sighted and blind athletes were indistinguishable. These findings suggest that the facial expressions that go with emotions are wired into the human brain

Question 30

How does emotion vary across cultures?

Answer 30

• -found considerable cross-cultural agreement in the identification of happiness, sad- ness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust based on facial expressions
• • Japanese culture encourages the experience of socially engaging emotions (e.g., friendly feelings, sympathy, and guilt) while North American culture encourages socially disengaging emotions (e.g., pride and anger) and they report experiencing these kinds of emotion more
• -Some basic categories of emotion that are universally understood in Western cultures appear to go unrecognized, or at least unnamed, in some non-Western cultures (no word that corresponds to sadness. Others lack words for depression, anxiety, or remorse.)
• -Display rules are norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions
• -The Ifaluk of Micronesia, for instance, severely restrict expressions of happiness because they believe that this emotion often leads people to neglect their duties
• -Japanese culture emphasizes the suppression of negative emotions in public. More so than in many other cultures, the Japanese are socialized to mask emo- tions such as anger, sadness, and disgust with stoic facial expressions or polite smiling

Question 31

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

Answer 31

• • the conscious experience of emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic arousal
• -In other words, while you might assume that your pulse is racing because you’re fearful, James and Lange argued that you’re fearful because your pulse is racing.
• -Hence, people supposedly distinguish emotions such as fear, joy, and anger on the basis of the exact configuration of physical reactions they experience.

Question 32

What is the Cannon–Bard theory of emotion?

Answer 32

• -Cannon pointed out that physiological arousal may occur without the experience of emotion (if one exercises vigorously, for instance) and that they are too slow to come before conscious experience of emotion, and that people feeling very different emotions experience the same physiological arousal
• -The resulting Cannon–Bard theory argues that emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating the conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal)
• -Cannon and Bard were off the mark a bit in pinpointing the thalamus as the neural centre for emotion

Question 33

What is Schachter’s Two-Factor theory of emotion?

Answer 33

• -the experience of emotion depends on two factors: (1) autonomic arousal and (2) cognitive interpreta- tion of that arousal.
• -Schachter proposed that when you experience visceral arousal, you search your environment for an explanation (If you’re stuck in a traffic jam, you’ll probably label your arousal as anger)
• -In a study, Dutton and Aron arranged for young men crossing a footbridge in a park to encounter a young woman who asked them to stop briefly to fill out a questionnaire. The woman offered to explain the research at some future time and gave the men her phone number. Autonomic arousal was manipulated by enacting this scenario on two very different bridges. One was a long suspension bridge that swayed precariously 70 metres above a river. The other bridge was a solid, safe structure above a small stream. The experimenters reasoned that the men crossing the frightening bridge would be experiencing emotional arousal and that some of them might attribute that arousal to the woman rather than to the bridge. As predicted, more of the men who met the woman on the precarious bridge called her for a date.
• -However, studies have revealed some limitations; in searching to explain arousal, subjects don’t limit themselves to the immediate situation

Question 34

What is the evolutionary theory of emotion?

Answer 34

• -These evolutionary theories consider emotions to be largely innate reactions to certain stimuli
• -believe that emotion evolved before thought (after all, primitive animals that are incapable of complex thought seem to have little difficulty in recognizing their emotion). They assert that thought plays a relatively small role in emotion, although they admit that learning and cognition may have some influence on human emotions.
• -generally assume that emotions originate in subcortical brain structures that evolved before the higher brain areas in the cortex associated with complex thought.
• -assume that evolution has equipped humans with a small number of innate emotions with proven adaptive value Hence, the principal question that many theories of emotion wrestle with is What are the fundamental emotions?
• -The potential adaptive value of these basic emotions is key to the evolutionary argument. Ex disgust serves an important function as a disease-avoidance mechanism.
• • Of course, people experience more than just eight to ten emotions primitive emotions
• -evolutionary theorists propose that the many emotions that people experience are produced by (1) blends of primary emotions and (2) variations in intensity (primary emotions such as fear and surprise may blend into secondary emotions such as awe)

Question 35

What is Henry Murray’s theory of needs?

Answer 35

• -Hierarchy of Needs: we have a variety of needs, some stronger than others (order of hierarchy is individual to self)
• -According to Murray, it is the process of reducing the tension, not being in a tensionless state, that is satisfying
• • Need refers to a readiness to respond in a certain way under certain circumstances. A need that we carry around until the circumstance is right. Ex. studying alone all the time so you feel lonely and have a need for affiliation. This need remains dormant while studying until an opportunity arises, like being invited somewhere, or more inclined to create an opportunity (calling a friend).
• -Needs organize perception, guiding us to “see” what we want (need) to see. Ex. A need for achievement will guide you to look for the best seat in your lecture hall so that you will be able to hear the professor well and thus get a good grade. So you scan the room looking for the best place to sit. If your need is a need for affiliation, you’re looking at the people and who looks the friendliest so that you can make friends

Question 36

What is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 36

•Lower needs (stronger) must be satisfied before we can proceed to higher needs
•Need hierarchy emerges during development, with lower needs emerging earlier in life than higher needs
•The hierarchy is the same for everyone, but people differ on where they are in that hierarchy
–self-actualization: : to achieve the full aspect of our potential. Very few people get to this, most people struggle with belongingness or esteem. However, once you get there you never finish working on this you always are working towards it. Ex you can always do more charity work, you can always learn more, etc
–esteem: feeling positive about oneself. At a lower level, having respect/esteem (people liking you) from others and at a higher level, looking for self respect/esteem
–belongingness
–safety
–physiological
We can move up and down these needs

Question 37

What are characteristics of self-actualizing people?

Answer 37

• Increased acceptance of self, of others, and of nature
• Increased spontaneity
• Improved interpersonal relationships
• Greatly increased creativity
• More democratic character structure (recognize the worth of each individual)

Question 38

What are the big three motives/needs according to Abraham Maslow?

Answer 38

Need for Achievement
–The desire to do better, to be successful, and to feel competent
– they handle negative feedback about task performance more effectively than others
–more future-oriented than others and more likely to delay gratification in order to pursue long-term goals
–Participants high in the need for achievement tended to select tasks of intermediate difficulty
–The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test, one that requires subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal personal motives and traits (pictures of people in ambiguous scenes open to interpretation)
–Subjects are asked to write or tell stories about what’s happening in the scenes and what the characters are feeling
Need for Power
–A readiness or preference for having an impact on other people
–The need for power correlates with having arguments with others, being elected to student office in university, taking larger risks in gambling situations, behaving assertively and actively in small group settings, and acquiring more “toys” (i.e. sports cars)
Need for Intimacy
–The recurrent preference or readiness for warm, close, and communicative interaction with others
–People high in need for intimacy
–Seek out more meaningful human contact in their day-to-day lives
–They smile, laugh, and make more eye contact
–They start up conversations more frequently
–Report more pleasant emotions when around other people

Question 39

What are the effects of incentive delay?

Answer 39

• -If there is a delay between the current behaviour and the future incentive (the arrival of the reinforcer), then this will diminish the value of the incentive
• -delay discounting/temporal discounting: the value of a future incentive is represented in the present at a marked-down value
• -The amount of discounting increases with the length of the delay interval

Question 40

What is the difference between future-oriented and present oriented people?

Answer 40

• -future-oriented – meaning that we are better able to imagine the future possibilities and we engage in less “delay discounting”
• -present-oriented – meaning that we are more focused on the “here and now” and we engage in more “delay discounting”

Question 41

What is Achievement Goal Theory and what was the study conducted?

Answer 41

–Achievement Goal Theory proposes that students’ motivation and achievement-related behaviours can be understood by considering the reasons or purposes they adopt while engaged in academic work
–Assessed the self-efficacy (believing that one is capable), learning-related behavioural patterns, and motivational goal-orientation of 525 students
–Examined the relation between school grades and
•Mastery-approach goal orientation: wanting to learn as much as possible. Not fearing the lack of knowledge, they just want it.
•Mastery-avoidance goal orientation: not so excited about having the knowledge, they’re more worried about the lack or failure of it
•Performance-approach goal orientation: want to prove their self-worth publicly (want to do better than the other students)
•Performance-avoidance goal orientation: want to avoid looking incompetent. afraid of asking “dumb” questions because they fear looking dumb
RESULTS
–Positive correlation between grades and (1) mastery orientation (didn’t matter if they had a mastery approach or avoidance), and (2) self- efficacy
–Performance approach was positively correlated to classroom grades
–Performance avoidance was related to a pattern of disengagement from challenging activities (walk away from challenges, procrastinate)

Question 42

What is anorexia nervosa?

Answer 42

Essential features
1. Persistent energy intake restriction
2. Intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat
(This is not alleviated by weight loss), or persistent behaviour that interferes with weight gain (reduction in total food intake, excluding high calorie foods, purging and/or increased/excessive exercise)
3. A disturbance in self-perceived weight or shape (misperception in their weight/shape)
–May perceive entire body to be overweight
–May realize that they are “thin” but are concerned that certain parts of the body are “too fat.”
– When Anorexia Nervosa develops in an individual during childhood or early adolescence, there may be a failure to make expected weight gains (while growing in height) instead of weight loss.
–In the DSM, there are usual time requirements but for this disorder, it is only concerned with the BMI

Question 43

What are the subtypes of anorexia nervosa?

Answer 43

•Restricting Type – weight loss is accomplished primarily through dieting, fasting, or excessive exercise.
•Binge-Eating/Purging Type – when the individual has regularly engaged in binge eating or purging
(or both).

Question 44

What is the prevalence of anorexia nervosa?

Answer 44

• Prevalence: Females 0.5% (lifetime prevalence), and among males it is 0.05%
• Typically begins in mid to late adolescence (14-18 years) but has been diagnosed in children as young as 7.
• Onset rarely occurs in females over 40 (if you have never had the symptos before 40, it is rare for you to develop them after).

Question 45

What is bulimia nervosa and how is it different from anorexia nervosa?

Answer 45

Essential features
1.Recurrent episodes of binge eating (large amount of high caloric food with rapid consumption that lasts usually less than 2 hours and are in a frenzied or out of control state) –ashamed of this
2.Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviours to prevent weight gain
3.Self-evaluation that is unduly influenced by body shape and weight
•The individual should not meet the criteria for the Binging-Purging subtype of Anorexia Nervosa
—If their weight is normal and the menstrual cycle is regular, then diagnosis is Bulimia
—If their weight is below normal (and they are binging-purging), then diagnosis is Binging-Purging subtype of Anorexia

Question 46

What are the subtypes of bulimia nervosa?

Answer 46

• -Purging Type: the person has regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting.
• -Non-purging Type: this subtype describes presentations in which the person has used other inappropriate compensatory behaviours (fasting or excessive exercise), but has not regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting

Question 47

What is the etiology of eating disorders?

Answer 47

• -Compared to families of controls, family environments of individuals who have eating disorders have lower levels of cohesiveness that reflect less support, empathy, and understanding from parents
• -In a community study, families of women who had BN were more likely to diet and to be critical of weight and eating, compared to families of both normal and psychiatric controls
• -Both AN & BN run in families, first-degree relatives have an increased risk for AN & BN

Question 48

What is Schachter & Singer’s Two-Factor Theory study (the pill one)?

Answer 48

• All participants given a placebo pill. Half told that the pill would make their hearts pound & hands tremble, the other half told nothing about possible side effects.
• Participants given electric shocks (thus, experienced pain & fear as well as a physical response – i.e. increased heart rate)
• Participants who perceive their reaction as drug-induced were able to tolerate stronger shocks and also reported less pain and fear.

Question 49

What was the study that investigated the facial feedback hypothesis?

Answer 49

–Participants asked to hold a pen either:
•(1) in their non-dominant hand (control condition),
•(2) between their teeth, or
•(3) between their lips
–Participants rated a series of “The Far Side” comics for level of funniness
–Pen between lips –> facilitates frowning –> therefore should produce less positive emotion –> comics less funny
–Pen between teeth –> facilitates smiling –> therefore should produce more positive emotion –> funnier comics

Question 50

How can we classify emotions?

Answer 50

•A dimensional approach to emotion suggests that we can classify emotions according to whether they are pleasant or unpleasant and if they are arousal or non-arousal. Ex. serene/calm is a pleasant emotion with low arousal. Angry is an unpleasant emotion with high arousal. Sad is an unpleasant emotion with low arousal

Question 51

What is the difference between emotional content and emotional style?

Answer 51

–Emotional Content: the kind of emotion that one experiences (positive or negative)
•Classifying emotions according to whether they are pleasant or unpleasant
•Negative: Distressed, Sad, Sluggish
•Positive: Elated, Happy, Calm
–Emotional Style (affect intensity): the way the emotion is experienced (degree of mood variability)
•some people could show their happiness by jumping around and other ways, while someone else can display their happiness by being rather calm

Question 52

How can you measure emotional content?

Answer 52

–The Positive And Negative Affect Scale (PANAS)
–For each of the following, use the scale to indicate to what extent you generally feel this way, that is, how you feel on average (you can determine the average time. Like asking how they feel in the moment, or over the past year, etc)
•. Positive Affect Subscale – sum the responses for all the positive emotions
•Negative Affect Subscale – sum the responses for all the negative emotions
—Scores range from 10 to 50. Higher scores indicate a higher level of Positive Affect/Negative Affect
—They can be independent of each other

Question 53

How can you measure emotional style?

Answer 53

• -Positive Intensity: sum the responses. Higher scores indicate a tendency to experience strong feelings of happiness, elation, and ecstasy
• -Negative Affectivity: sum the responses. Higher scores indicate a tendency to experience intense negative emotions such as the experience of anxiety, tension, and nervousness
• -Serenity: sum the responses. Higher scores indicate a tendency to experience positive affect such as calm, content, relaxation, and peacefulness

Question 54

Explain the study that examined the relation between emotions and exams?

Answer 54

•Assessed 59 university students in the two weeks leading up to final exams.
–PANAS, threat/challenge (if they view the exam as a threat or a challenge), exercise behaviour
•Looking to determine whether exercise behaviour increased positive affect and decreased negative affect in the weeks leading up to final exams
Results:
•As exams approach, threat appraisals increase
•Threat appraisals significantly related to negative affect
•Challenge appraisals significantly related to positive affect
•Toward the end of the two-week period, as exams approach, exercise was significantly related to positive affect (exercising helped with increasing mood)
•When events were appraised at a lower level of threat, exercise was associated with lower negative affect (lowering the bad mood)
•When events were appraised as highly threatening, exercise was associated with higher levels of negative affect (making you feel worse)
—Conclusion: exercise can be an effective coping strategy for dealing with stress, but may not be effective when stress levels are highly demanding

Question 55

What is Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love?

Answer 55

1) Intimacy (liking): feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness in loving relationships. Slow steady build to it but once it’s built it typically remains high
2) Passion (infatuation): drives that lead to romance, physical attraction, sexual consummation -initially the strongest but does fade over time.
3) Commitment (empty love): in the short-term, the decision that one loves a certain other, and in the long-term, to one’s commitment to maintain that love -increases as a result of conscious decision

–Intimacy + commitment (companionate love) -no physiological arousal (older couples)
–Passion + commitment (fatuous/silly love)
–Passion + intimacy (romantic love)
All 3
–Intimacy + passion + commitment (consumate love): best type