Chapter 1- Social Influence

Question 1

Define the term: Conformity:

Answer 1

Conformity is the tendency to change what we do/think/say (behaviours, attitudes) in response of others/social pressure (real/imagined).

Question 2

What are the 3 types of conformity?

Answer 2

Compliance, Identification, Internalisation.

Question 3

Define “Compliance” in terms of conformity:

Answer 3

Compliance is when one agrees publicly but privately does not alter personal views. This can be said to be “superficial”, behaviour stops as soon as group pressure ceases.

Question 4

Define “Identification” in terms of Conformity:

Answer 4

Identification is where one feels group membership and both public and private views change- this is temporary. It is a deeper form of conformity.

Question 5

Define “Internalisation” in terms of Conformity:

Answer 5

Internalisation is where there is a conversion of views that are adopted from a group- both public and private views are changed permanently. This is the deepest level of conformity. Change persists in the absence of the group members, attitude adopted.

Question 6

What is NSI?

Answer 6

Normative Social Influence- when one conforms in order to be accepted into a group and feel a sense of belonging. It may be socially rewarding and some may undergo NSI to avoid punishment. Emotional process rather than cognitive process.

NSI often occurs when in a situation where the social norms are not well known, so others become an example of how to behave. May be more common in stressful situations.

Question 7

What is ISI?

Answer 7

Informational Social Influence- when one conforms in order to gain knowledge. Most undergo ISI in order to be “right” and avoid standing out.

ISI is a cognitive process- people want to be right.

ISI likely to occur in ambiguous situations where it isn’t clear what is right, or when decisions need to be made quickly.

Question 8

What was the aim of Asch’s Line Study?

Answer 8

Aim- to see if individual changes views to agree with majority (even if incorrect).

Question 9

Give 6 Procedures that occured in Asch’s Line Study:

Answer 9

123 male PPs
Small group 7-9
2 cards- standard and comparison
Answer was always obvious
18 trials per group
Confederates- only 1 real PP per group

Question 10

What were the findings in Asch’s Line Study?

Answer 10

Overall conformity rate was 37%
5% conformed every trial
25% remained completely independent

Question 11

What was the conclusion to Asch’s Line Study?

Answer 11

People conformed due to NSI- many PPs said that they didn’t want to stand out.

Question 12

Give 3 possible positive evaluations of Asch’s Line Study:

Answer 12

1. “Real” pressure felt by PPs
2. Tightly controled lab experiment- high internal validity
3. Reliable- exact details of study are given, so in theory, experiment can be replicated to get similar results
   = High Validity!!

Question 13

Give 6 possible negative evaluations of the Asch Line Study:

Answer 13

1. Lacks Mundane Realism
2. Only 123 PPs- small sample
3. Only male PPs- gender bias
4. Unethical because of deception.
5. Maybe lacks internal validity- PPs may have understood the real aim of the experiment and went along with it to please the experimenters.
6. Cannot interpret if NSI or ISI.
7. PP from USA only, individualist culture- Smith+Bond (1998) suggest that conformity rates in collectivist culture are higher (more concerned for group needs). Asch findings limited to American men.

Question 14

In the Variations of Asch, what were the aims, procedures and findings of “Group Size”.

Answer 14

Aim- “How does size of majority affect rate of conformity?”
Procedures- 1-15 confederates
Findings:
1 confederate: 3% conformity rate
2 confederates: 12.8% conformity rate
3 confederates: 32% conformity rate (same as original Asch expt where there was 6-8 confederates
15 confederates: 29% conformity rate (dropped, PPs suspicious of experiment)

Question 15

In the Variations of Asch, what were the aims, procedures and findings of “Group Unanimity”.

Answer 15

Aim- “to see how agreement between confederates affects conformity”
Prodcedures and Findings:
1 confederate says correct answer: 5% conformity rate
1 confederate says different incorrect answer: 9% conformity rate
Therefore, if you break/disrupt group unanimous position, comformity is reduced.

Question 16

In the Variations of Asch, what were the aims, procedures and findings of “Task Difficulty”.

Answer 16

Aim- to see if the difference in line lengths (smaller, closer together, ambiguous) i.e. making the task more difficult will increase the rate of conformity
Procedures- making the lines on cards smaller, closer together
Findings- happens due to ISI, conformity rate increased

Question 17

What were the procedures of the Stanford Prison Study…? Include details on uniform and instructions on the roles.

Answer 17

Procedures:

• Zimbardo (1973)
• mock prison at Stanford Uni.
• 21 ‘emotionally stable’ male student volunteers
• PPs randomly assigned either prisoner or guard
• To increase realism, ‘prisoners’ were arrested at their homes and delivered to prison blindfolded, strip-searched, deloused and issued uniform and number.

Uniforms:

• Prisoners: loose smock, cap to cover hair, identified by number (no names used)
• Guards: police uniform, wooden club, handcuffs and mirror shades.
• These uniforms created loss of personal identity = de-individuation, more likely to conform to social role.

Instructions about behaviour:

• Prisoners encouraged to identify with role, e.g. instead of opting to leave study, ‘apply for parole’
• Guards were encouraged to play their role by being reminded that they had complete power over prisoners.

Question 18

Describe a study that supports Zimbardo’s theory of conformity to social roles:

Answer 18

Abu Ghraib:

• Supports Zimbardo’s theory
• American Prison- US soldiers beat + abused Iraqi prisoners
• Real life! Not made up/fake. Good evidence
• Prisoners were tortured, physically + sexually abused, routinely humiliated and murdered,.
  *

Question 19

Define Obedience:

Answer 19

Obedience- a form of social influence where individual follows direct order. Person issuing order is usually figure of authority who h as power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming.

Question 20

What were the procedures in Milgrim’s obedience experiment:

Answer 20

• 40 Male PPs (20-50 y/o)
• volunteers obtained thru newspapers advert
• when each volunteer arrived, he was introduced to another PP (confederate)
• drew lots to determine who would be Teacher / Learner
• real PP always teacher
• experimenter was involved.
• The Learner (Mr Wallace) was strapped into chair + wired up w/ electrodes (confederate)
• The Teacher (real PP) was given small shock to experience- only real shock of expt.
• Leaner tasked to remember pairs of words, every time error made, electric shock became stronger + more painful
• Teacher administered shocks through ‘shock machine’.
• At 300 volts, Learner pounded on wall + no response to next Q
• At 315 volts, Learner pounded on wall + silent for rest of procedure.

There were 4 standard prods that Experimenter used to ORDER teacher :

1. ‘please continue…’
2. ‘the experiment requires that you continue..’
3. ‘it is absolutely essential you continue’
4. ‘you have no other choice, you must go on’

Question 21

What were the findings to Milgrim’s Obedience Expt?

Answer 21

• every PP delivered all shocks up to 300 volts
• 12.5% stopped at 300 volts (intense shock)
• 65% continued to 450 volts (highest level)- fully obedient
• Qualitative data recorded too (sweat, tension, tremble, stutter, lip biting, groan)
• 3 PP had seizures.

Other data:

14 psychology students asked by Milgrim to predict the participants’ behaviour.

students estimated that no more than 3% of the participants would continue to 450 volts.

All participants in the baseline study were debriefed and assured that their behaviour was entirely normal

follow-up questionnaire - 84% said they were glad to have participated.

Question 22

What were the conclusions of Milgrim’s obedience expt:

Answer 22

Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure even to the extent of killing an innocent human being.

Question 23

Outline a study that supports Milgrim’s Theory of Obedience to a figure of authority:

Answer 23

• Hofling et al (1966)
• 22 nurses working a various American hospitals received calls from confederate ‘Dr Smith’
• He instructed them to give Mr Jones (also confederate) 20mg of made up drug.
• Dr said he was in hurry and would sign drug form when he saw patient in 10 mins.
• Label on made up drug stated maximum dose was 10mg
• If nurse obeyed Dr Smith- they would be exceeding maximum dosage.
• Also is she obeyed, she would break rule requiring authorisation before any drug administered so nurse is sure Dr Smith is genuine doctor.
• 21 out of 22 nurses obeyed without hesitation and 11 later said they had not noticed dosage discrepancy.

Question 24

Outline a study that doesn’t support Milgrim’s theory:

Answer 24

Rank + Jacobson (1977)

• replicated Hofling’s expt
• BUT instructions were to administer Valium at 3 times the recommended dose,
• telephone instruction came from real, known doctor
• nurses were able to consult with other nurses before proceeding
• Under these conditions, only 2 / 18 nurses prepared medication as requested.

Question 25

What is a strength of ISI?

Answer 25

Research Support:

• Lucus et al (‘06) asked students to give answers to easy and difficult math problems
• More conformity to incorrect answers when problems were difficult (most true for PP who had low confidence in math ability)
  
  • Supports the theory of ISI as the PP conformed in a situation where they did not know the answer and assumed others were more knowledgable.

Question 26

What is a drawback of the theory ISI?

Answer 26

ISI does not take into account individual differences

Asch (1955) found that students were less conformist (28%) than other PPs (37%)

People who are more confident are less influenced by apparently ‘right’ views of majority.

THEREFORE- there are differences in how individuals respond to ISI.

Question 27

NSI and ISI are limited as this theory relies on a ‘two-process’ approach- explain why and give an example.

Answer 27

• Approach states behaviour is due to either ISI or NSI
• In Asch expt, conformity was reduced when there was presence of dissenter, which reduced power of NSI (social support) or reduced power of ISI (alternative source of info).
  
  • THEREFORE- isn’t always possible to know if NSI or ISI is at work- if operate independently in conforming behaviour

Question 28

Give a strength and a limitation of the theory of NSI:

Answer 28

Strength:

• Asch (1951) asked PP to explain why they agreed with wrong answer- most said they felt self-conscious giving right answer; afraid of disapproval.
• When PP asked to write down answers, conformity fell to 12.5%.
• Supports the PP own reports that they conformed due to NSI.

Weakness:

• nAffliators, people who care more about being liked than others (greater need for social relationships).
• McGhee + Teevan (1967) found that students who were nAffiliators more likely to conform.
• Desire to be liked and conform is more in some people than in others.
  
  • General theory NSI doesn’t account for differences in genetics/personality.

Question 29

What were the findings of Zimbardo’s SPE:

Answer 29

• Within 2 days, prisoners rebelled against their treatment. Guards retaliated with fire extinguishers
• Guards harassed prisoners often, doing head-counts in the middle of night.
• Guards used divide-and-conquer rule.
• After rebellion, prisoners became subdued, depressed and anxious.
  
  • Study ended 6 days instead of intended 14.

Question 30

What are the three situational variables that affect Obedience?

Answer 30

1. Proximity
2. Location
3. Uniform
   1.

Question 31

How does proximity affect obedience- outline some data that supports this too :

Answer 31

Proximity- decreased proximity allows people to psychologically distance themselves from consequences of their actions.

e.g.

In the proximity variation, Teacher and Learner in same room.

The obedience rate dropped from original 65% to 40%.

Touch Proximity variation- Teacher forced Learner’s hand onto an ‘electroshock plate’- obedience dropped to 30%.

Remote Instruction Variation- Experimenter left room and gave instructions to Teacher by telephone. Obedience reduced to 20.5%

Question 32

How does Location affect Obedience- use data to support:

Answer 32

Milgrim conducted variation at run-down office block, rather than prestigious Yale Uni.

• obedience fell down to 48%
• legitimacy of authority was expected at Uni
• ‘scientific’ nature means that obedience was still quite high.
  *

Question 33

How does Uniform affect Obedience and give data to support?

Answer 33

• In baseline study, experimenter wore grey lab coat- symbol of authority.
• In variation, experimenter was called away from Teacher due to phone call and an ‘ordinary person’ who was confederate took role, normal clothes. Obedience fell to 20%.
• Why?
  
  • Uniforms encourage obedience, as they are a widely recognised symbol, which signifies is authority is legitimate (granted by society/culture)

Question 34

Outline two situational explanations of obedience, that link with the dynamics of social hierarchies:

Answer 34

1. Agentic Theory:

Milgrim theorised that obedience to destructive authority occurs because person doesn’t take responsibility and act for someone else. I.e. Agent.

Agentic State is when someone who acts for another person. They experience high moral strain, but feel powerless to disobey.

Autonomous State: free/independent to act according to conscience, feel responsibility for own actions.

Shift from autonomy to ‘agency’ = Agentic shift. Occurs when person perceives as an authority figure (often have higher position in social hierarchy).

Binding Factor: aspects of situation that allow person to minimise damaging effect of their behaviour and reduce ‘moral strain’. e.g. denying damage that is occurring to victims.

2. Legitimacy of Authority:

• This theory suggests that society structured in hierarchical way.
• People in higher positions hold authority over people in lower position.
• The authority these people wield is legitimate (agreed by society)
• Most accept that these authority figures have the right to exercise social power in order to let society to function smoothly.

DESTRUCTUVE AUTHORITY-→ legitimate powers granted to authority figures are abused and cause destruction. Order people to behave in dangerous and cruel ways.

Acceptance of legitimate authority is learnt from childhood, from parents initially.

Question 35

Outline a dispositional explanation of Obedience:

Answer 35

Adorno et al:

• Authoritarian Personality is a collection of traits developed from strict/rigid parenting.
• Traits include: conformist, conventional, dogmatic, hostile towards those perceived lower status (scapegoating)
• AP are obedient to people of perceived higher status.
• Adorno used an ‘F-scale’ to determine if AP is present in person.
• F-scale: far left + far right = extreme political ideology. F-scale says that AP is ‘right-wing’ (conservatives).
• If scored high on F-scale, tend to be raised by Authoritarian parents + INTERNALISED their values.

Question 36

Outline a study related to dispositional explanations of obedience…:

Answer 36

• Adorno et al (1950)
• 2000 middle class white Americans PPs studied
• their unconscious attitudes towards racial grps studied
• Researchers used many measurement scales, including F-scale
• Findings: people with Authoritarian Personality (high score on F-scale) were generally contemptuous of the weak. Conscious of status. Extreme respect, deference + servility to higher status (all these traits are basis of obedience)
• Conclusion: Adorno found that AP people had certain cognitive style- black and white thinking
• fixed + distinctive stereotypes about other social groups.
• Adorno found Strong Positive Correlation between AP and prejudice.

Question 37

What is Conventionalism?

Answer 37

Adherence to conventional norms + values

Question 38

What is Authoritarian Aggression?

Answer 38

Aggressive feelings toward people who violate conventional norms.

Question 39

What is Authoritarian Submission:

Answer 39

Uncritical submission to legitimate authorities.

Question 40

Describe two theories on resistance to social influence:

Answer 40

Locus of Control: Rotter 1966; concerned with internal control vs external control.

• internal LOC- things that happen to them are largely controlled by themselves.
• external LOC- believe things that happen are outside their control.
• LOC continuum- individuals vary position on scale.
• High internal LOC: resist pressures to conform the best + take actions for actions+experiences. DONT depend on other opinions.
• High internal LOC leads to greater resistance to Social Influence.

Social Support:

e.g. in Asch study when confederate gave alternative answer…

• pressure to conform can be resisted if there are other people present who are not conforming.
• the fact that someone else is not following the majority is social support, enables naive person to follow own conscience.
• confederate acts as a model of independent behaviour
• SO their dissent gives rise to more dissent because majority is no longer unanimous.
  
  • disobedient model challenges legitimacy of authority, easier for others to disobey.

Question 41

Define Minority social influence:

Answer 41

A form of social influence in which a minority of people (sometimes 1 person) persuades others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours. Leads to internalisation/conversion in which private attitudes are changed as well as public attitudes.

Question 42

What was Moscovici’s Minority Social Influence Theory:

Answer 42

Moscovici ‘85:

identified behavioural styles minorities must possess if they are to exert social influence on majorities:

1. Consistency: must be consistent in their opposition to majority, single most important factor for minority to be influential. 2 TYPES:
   
   1. Synchronic consistency: all in minority saying same thing.
   2. Diachronic consistency: consistency over time.
2. Commitment: suggests that minority group is confident + certain in their position.
   
   1. Augmentation principle: risks taken by minority groups show commitment + may convince others they are right
3. Flexibility: not appear ‘dogmatic’ by rigidly adhering to same arguments they need to demonstrate a degree of adaptability.

Question 43

Outline Moscovici et al. (1969) experiment on Minority Social Influence:

Answer 43

Procedure:

• 4 naive PPs
• Minority of 2 confederates
• shown series of 36 blue slides that varied in intensity
• asked to judge colour of each slide
• ‘consistent expt’: 2 confederates repeatedly called blue slides green.
• ‘inconsistent expt’: confederates called slides green in ⅔ of trial and in ⅓ called slides blue.
• ‘control condition’: 6 naive PPs and no confederates, PPs called slides blue throughout.

Findings:

• Consistent: minority influenced naive PPs to say green in 8% of trial.
• Inconsistent had very little influence, only 1% agreed with minority.

Conclusion?

Moscovici’s research demonstrates that, even though level of conformity not near as great as with majority influence, a consistent minority is more influential than inconsistent one.

Question 44

Define the snowball affect in MSI:

Answer 44

Minority’s view provokes deeper thought (especially is view is consistent, committed and flexible)

Deeper processing is important in process of conversion to different minority viewpoint.

Over time, increasing numbers of people switch from majority to minority position = ‘converted’

The more this happens, the faster the rate of conversion = snowball effect.

gradually minority view becomes majority view and change has occurred.

Question 45

What are the steps in which minority social influence creates social change:

Answer 45

1. Drawing attention through social proof (civil right marches for example, or George Floyd’s video went viral)
2. Consistency
3. Deeper processing of issue. People who ahd already accepted ‘status quo’ think deeply about situation.
4. Augmentation Principle: risk taken by minority to show commitment.
5. Snowball effect: slowly more people back minority position, making the switch from minority to majority position.
6. **Social Crypto-amnesia: people have a memory that change has occurred but don’t remember how it happened. **
   1.