Chapter 1: Research

Question 0

How does overconfidence contaminate our judgements?

Answer 0

Overconfidence can lead to confirmation bias, in which we seek to confirm our preconceptions.

Question 1

How might hindsight bias make research findings seem like mere common sense?

Answer 1

Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after learning of an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Learning a study’s results can seem like common sense after that.

Question 2

How does the scientific attitude encourage critical thinking?

Answer 2

It helps us sift reality from illusion.

1. skeptical scrutinization of competing ideas
2. “humility before nature”
3. critical thinking (examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, assess outcomes)

Question 3

How do psychological theories guide scientific research?

Answer 3

Theories organize observations, which lead to hypotheses. After outlining operational definitions, hypotheses are tested, validated, and refined. Later, the study is replicated.

Question 4

What are the drawbacks/benefits of using a case study?

Answer 4

Case study = studying one individual in hopes of revealing universal principles;
can suggest hypotheses, but an unrepresentative individual can lead to false conclusions.

Question 5

What are the benefits/drawbacks of using surveys? How is wording important in random sampling?

Answer 5

Surveys rely on self-reported attitudes/behaviors. Wording effects can effect responses, and random sampling helps use a small group to represent a larger one, since everyone has an equal chance to participate.

Question 6

false consensus effect

Answer 6

overestimating the amount of people who agree with us

Question 7

population

Answer 7

the entire group studied

Question 8

random sample

Answer 8

everyone has an equal chance to participate

Question 9

correlation

Answer 9

the relationship between two factors (correlation coefficient = number representing relationship)

Question 10

scatterplot

Answer 10

dot plot (represents correlation)

Question 11

Describe positive and negative correlations, explain how correlational measures aid predictions.

Answer 11

Correlation coefficient = measure of how closely two things are related.
positive correlation = rise/fall together
negative correlation = one goes up, other goes down
scatterplots = help organize correlations

Question 11

Why isn’t correlational research evidence for cause/effect relationships?

Answer 11

Correlation isn’t causation, only the possibility of such.

Question 11

What are the benefits/drawbacks of naturalistic observation?

Answer 11

Naturalistic observation allows researchers to study organisms in their natural environment. It can’t explain behaviors, but it can help expand understanding and lead to hypotheses.

Question 12

How are illusory correlations formed?

Answer 12

Illusory correlation is seeing a relationship where there is none. Once we believe two things are related, we look for confirmation of such.

Question 12

How to experiments help isolate cause and effect?

Answer 12

Experiments manipulate/control one or more factors (cause) to observe the effect on behavior/mental processes (effect).

Question 12

experimental condition

Answer 12

group with treatment

Question 12

control condition

Answer 12

group without treatment

Question 12

placebo effect

Answer 12

simply believing in something ensures it’s there.

Question 13

What’s the difference between an independent and dependent variable?

Answer 13

Independent variable = manipulated factor to study its effect (cause)
Dependent variable = changes in response to independent variable (effect)

Question 14

Why are double-blind procedures and random assignment useful?

Answer 14

In a double-blind procedure, neither the researchers nor the participants knows about the placebo, making sure the researchers’ expectations don’t skew the results.
Random assignment ensures anyone has equal chance of being in either group, minimizing preexisting differences.

Question 15

What’s the importance of statistical principles?

Answer 15

Statistics = help us organize, summarize, make inferences from information; teach us to doubt “big, round numbers”

Question 16

How can bar graphs misrepresent data?

Answer 16

They can be scaled inappropriately.

Question 17

What are the three measures of central tendency?

Answer 17

median = middle number
mode = most frequent number
mean = average (most easily distorted by high/low numbers)

Question 18

Describe two measures of variation.

Answer 18

range = gap between highest/lowest numbers.

standard deviation = how much scores vary around the mean

Question 21

Why do psychologists study animals?

Answer 21

• interest in animal behavior
• studying animals helps us understand humans (similarities)
• temporary animal suffering —> relief of human suffering

Question 22

Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples.

Answer 22

1. Representative samples > biased samples
2. more variety = better
3. the more cases, the merrier

Question 24

How do psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful?

Answer 24

statistical significance = how likely these results occurred

Question 26

culture

Answer 26

beliefs, values, attitudes of a group throughout generations

Question 27

Can psychological research be generalized across cultures and genders?

Answer 27

Behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions vary across cultures, but the underlying principles are shared (mostly b/c of biological heritage). Males and females differ in some ways, but are similar biologically and psychologically.

Question 28

What are the strengths/weaknesses of the different methods (case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation)?

Answer 28

case studies = use singular instances to reveal universal principles. if an irregular case, can be misleading.
surveys = reveal self-reported tendencies of populations. wording can be misleading, can be nonrandom.
naturalistic observation = undisturbed observation. lack of control can leave ambiguity.

Question 29

How are human and animal rights protected?

Answer 29

• informed consent
• coercion (participation = voluntary)
• confidentiality
• no significant mental/physical risk
• debriefing