Chapter 1: Research Flashcards
How does overconfidence contaminate our judgements?
Overconfidence can lead to confirmation bias, in which we seek to confirm our preconceptions.
How might hindsight bias make research findings seem like mere common sense?
Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after learning of an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Learning a study’s results can seem like common sense after that.
How does the scientific attitude encourage critical thinking?
It helps us sift reality from illusion.
- skeptical scrutinization of competing ideas
- “humility before nature”
- critical thinking (examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, assess outcomes)
How do psychological theories guide scientific research?
Theories organize observations, which lead to hypotheses. After outlining operational definitions, hypotheses are tested, validated, and refined. Later, the study is replicated.
What are the drawbacks/benefits of using a case study?
Case study = studying one individual in hopes of revealing universal principles;
can suggest hypotheses, but an unrepresentative individual can lead to false conclusions.
What are the benefits/drawbacks of using surveys? How is wording important in random sampling?
Surveys rely on self-reported attitudes/behaviors. Wording effects can effect responses, and random sampling helps use a small group to represent a larger one, since everyone has an equal chance to participate.
false consensus effect
overestimating the amount of people who agree with us
population
the entire group studied
random sample
everyone has an equal chance to participate
correlation
the relationship between two factors (correlation coefficient = number representing relationship)
scatterplot
dot plot (represents correlation)
Describe positive and negative correlations, explain how correlational measures aid predictions.
Correlation coefficient = measure of how closely two things are related.
positive correlation = rise/fall together
negative correlation = one goes up, other goes down
scatterplots = help organize correlations
Why isn’t correlational research evidence for cause/effect relationships?
Correlation isn’t causation, only the possibility of such.
What are the benefits/drawbacks of naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observation allows researchers to study organisms in their natural environment. It can’t explain behaviors, but it can help expand understanding and lead to hypotheses.
How are illusory correlations formed?
Illusory correlation is seeing a relationship where there is none. Once we believe two things are related, we look for confirmation of such.
How to experiments help isolate cause and effect?
Experiments manipulate/control one or more factors (cause) to observe the effect on behavior/mental processes (effect).
experimental condition
group with treatment
control condition
group without treatment
placebo effect
simply believing in something ensures it’s there.
What’s the difference between an independent and dependent variable?
Independent variable = manipulated factor to study its effect (cause)
Dependent variable = changes in response to independent variable (effect)
Why are double-blind procedures and random assignment useful?
In a double-blind procedure, neither the researchers nor the participants knows about the placebo, making sure the researchers’ expectations don’t skew the results.
Random assignment ensures anyone has equal chance of being in either group, minimizing preexisting differences.
What’s the importance of statistical principles?
Statistics = help us organize, summarize, make inferences from information; teach us to doubt “big, round numbers”
How can bar graphs misrepresent data?
They can be scaled inappropriately.
What are the three measures of central tendency?
median = middle number mode = most frequent number mean = average (most easily distorted by high/low numbers)
Describe two measures of variation.
range = gap between highest/lowest numbers.
standard deviation = how much scores vary around the mean
Why do psychologists study animals?
- interest in animal behavior
- studying animals helps us understand humans (similarities)
- temporary animal suffering —> relief of human suffering
Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples.
- Representative samples > biased samples
- more variety = better
- the more cases, the merrier
How do psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful?
statistical significance = how likely these results occurred
culture
beliefs, values, attitudes of a group throughout generations
Can psychological research be generalized across cultures and genders?
Behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions vary across cultures, but the underlying principles are shared (mostly b/c of biological heritage). Males and females differ in some ways, but are similar biologically and psychologically.
What are the strengths/weaknesses of the different methods (case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation)?
case studies = use singular instances to reveal universal principles. if an irregular case, can be misleading.
surveys = reveal self-reported tendencies of populations. wording can be misleading, can be nonrandom.
naturalistic observation = undisturbed observation. lack of control can leave ambiguity.
How are human and animal rights protected?
- informed consent
- coercion (participation = voluntary)
- confidentiality
- no significant mental/physical risk
- debriefing
