Chapter 1: Psychology & Scientific Thinking Flashcards
Psychology is a discipline that spans multiple levels of analysis. What can we think of these levels of analysis as? Why is this important?
- The rung on a ladder: The lower rungs tied closely to biological influences (the brain), & the higher rungs tied most closely to social influences (the mind).
- However, the mind is just the brain in action.
-To fully understand psych, we must consider multiple levels of analysis
What makes psychology distinctive?
- Human behaviour is difficult to predict- Almost all actions are multiply determined: produced by many factors.
- Psych influences are rarely independent of each other, making it difficult to pin down which cause or causes are operating.
- People differ from each other in thinking, emotion, personality, & behaviour: (called) Individual differences
- People often influence each other, making it difficult to pin down what causes what.
- Peoples behaviours are often shaped by culture.
Explain the differences between an emic vs an epic approach. What the the pros & cons of each?
Emic approach: Cultural behaviour is studied from the perspective of someone who grew up in the culture.
- Pro:Better understand characteristics of culture.
- Con: Overlook characteristics the culture shares with others.
Epic approach: Cultural behaviour is studied from the perspective of an outsider.
- Pro: Better able to view this culture within broader perspective.
- Con: May unintentionally impose perspective from our own culture.
What is naive realism? Why can it pose as a threat in the way we think?
- The belief that we see the world precisely as it is.
- Threat: It can fool us when it comes to evaluating ourselves & others.
- Can lead us to draw incorrect conclusions about human nature.
When is our common sense right? What is a safeguard that helps us know when or when not to trust our intuition?
- Our intuition can come in handy, and sometimes guides us to the truth.
- Helpful guide for generating a hypothesis.
-Scientific thinking helps us learn when, or when not to trust our common sense.
- What is a scientific theory? What makes a good scientific theory?*
- What is a hypothesis? What is a theory?*
- Explanation for a large number of findings in natural world, including psychological world.
- Good scientific theories generate predictions regarding new data we haven’t yet observed.
- Hypothesis: Testable prediction.
- Theory: General explanation.
-Specific predictions (hypotheses) are derived from explanations (theories).
What is confirmation bias? How do we overcome them?
- Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs & deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them.
- Our preconceptions often lead us to focus on evidence that supports our beliefs, resulting in psychological tunnel vision.
-Scientists develop safeguards against errors, especially ones that could work in their favour (confirmation bias)
What is belief perseverance?
- Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs, even when evidence contradicts them.
- “Don’t confuse me with the facts” effect.
What are metaphysical claims? Do these claims fall within the premise of science?
- Assertions about world that we can’t test using scientific methods.
- Included assertions about god, the soul, & afterlife.
-Testable claims fall within the premise of science, untestable claims do not.
Why is science described as a “perception of humility?”
- Good scientists are aware that they might be mistaken, & never claim to “prove” their theories.
- They try to avoid committing to definitive conclusions, unless evidence supports them overwhelmingly.
-Words such as “suggest,” “appears,” & “raises the possibility that” are used-remain tentative in their interpretations of their findings.
What is Pseudoscience? Which safeguards does it lack?
- A set of claims that seems scientific, but isn’t.
- Lacks safeguards against confirmation bias & belief perseverance.
- Makes extreme claims that are not supported by evidence.
What are the warning signs of Pseudoscience?
- Exaggerated claims.
- Overreliance on anecdotes.
- Absence of connectivity to the research.
- Lack of review by other scholars (peer review) or replication by independent labs.
- Lack of self-correction when contrary evidence is published.
- Meaningless “psychobabble” that uses fancy scientific-sounding terms that don’t make sense.
- Talk of “proof” instead of evidence.
Explain the warning signs: Overuse & ad hoc immunizing hypothesis:
- Loophole that defenders of a theory us to protect this theory from being disproven.
- E.g. Psychics & how they claim scientific experiments interfere with psychic abilities-impossible to test.
Explain the warning sign: Lack of self-correction:
- In science, wrong claims tend to be weeded out eventually. in contrast, wrong claims never seem to go away bc their proponent falls prey of belief perseverance.
- E.g. Astrology. -Difficult to verify
Explain the warning sign: Overreliance on anecdotes:
- “Plural of anecdotes isn’t fact.”
- Mountain of anecdotes shouldn’t persuade us to put much stock in other’s claims.
- Most as “I know a person who” assertions.
- Difficulty to interpret as evidence.
What is patternicity?
- Tendency to see patterns in meaningless data.
- Can lead to errors.
- Our brains tend to seek out patterns & connections among events bc of the principle “better safe than sorry.”
What is the terror management theory?
- Theory proposing that our awareness of our own death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror.
- We cope with these feelings of terror by adopting reassuring cultural world views that assures us that our lives possess a broader meaning & purpose.
- This theory helps to explain popularity of beliefs such as astrology, ESP, & communication with the dead.
What are logical fallacies?
- Traps in thinking that can lead to mistaken conclusions.
- Easy to make these errors because they seem to make intuitive sense.
- Scientific thinking often requires us to cast aside our intuitions.
