Chapter 1 - Language, Homeostatis And Structrual Organization Flashcards
Anatomical position
Standing erect, face forward, upper limbs at the side, feet together, palms facing anteriorly with thumbs away from the body
Frontal plane
Also called coronal, divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse plane
Also called horizontal, divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Sagittal plane
Splits the body into right and left
Oblique plane
When a cut is made along an axis other than a right angle cut
Anterior
At or near the front of the body
Posterior
At or near the back of the body
Midline
An imaginary vertical line that divides the body equally (right down the middle)
Lateral
Father from the midline
Medial
Nearer the midline
Superior
Towards the head / upper part of a structure
Inferior
Away from the head / lower part of a structure
Superficial
Close to the surface of the body
Deep
Away from the surface of the body
Body cavities
Any fluid-filled space, space where the organs develop, most cavities provide room for the organs to adjust and contains protective membranes and sometimes bones that protect the organs
Name the body cavities?
Cranial, vertebral, thoracic (containing the pericardial and pleural cavity), abdominal and pelvic cavity
What is in the cranial cavity
Space occupied by the brain, enclosed by the cranium
What is in the spinal cavity
Space occupied by the spinal cord enclosed by the vertebral column making up the backbone. Spinal cavity is continuous with the cranial cavity
What is in the thoracic cavity
Space occupied by the ventral internal organs superior to the diaphragm, including lungs, trachea, and the heart, surrounded by the ribs and the chest wall muscles
Contains the pleural cavity (lateral) - holds the lungs and,
Mediastinum (medial) - pericardial cavity that holds the heart, esophagus and trachea
What is in the abdominopelvic cavity
The abdominal cavity and will of the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity with the bladder and reproductive organ
What is in the abdominal cavity
Ventral internal organs inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the pelvic girdle, cavity surrounded by the abdominal wall and the pelvic girdle
What is found in the dorsal body cavity
Cranial and vertebral cavities, contains and protects the brain and spinal cord
What is found in the ventral body cavity
Thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity, abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity and peritoneal cavity
What is found in the pelvic cavity
Inferior portion (compared to abdominal cavity), found in the bony pelvis, contains the reproductive organs and bladder
Serous cavities
Small space between two serous membranes (a thin double layered membrane), serous fluid is found within this small space. The part of the membrane that is lining the cavity walls is known as the parietal serosa and it folds over onto itself to make the visceral serosa which covers the organs in the cavity
3 different serous cavities
Pericardial cavity, pleural cavity and peritoneal cavity
Pericardial cavity
The space between the two layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart. The pericardium is a double walled sac that holds the heart and the roots to the great vessels - holds the heart in place and provides a barrier to infection. The space is filled with pericardial fluid. Made up of outer fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium
What makes up the inner serous pericardium
Parietal pericardium is attached to the fibrous (outer) pericardium and the visceral pericardium / epicardium is on the surface of the heart
What is the pleural cavity
The pleural cavity is a fluid-filled space that surrounds the lungs. It is found in the thorax, separating the lungs from its surrounding structures. The pleural cavity is bounded by a double layered serous membrane called pleura. The pleura is formed by an inner visceral pleura and an outer parietal layer. Between these layers is the pleural cavity that contains serous fluid which helps to lubricate the cavity and allows the lungs to move freely during breathing
What is the peritoneal cavity
It is the largest serous membrane in the body (surface area about the same as the skin). It is made up of two continuous layers including the parietal peritoneum that has contact with and loosely attaches to the abdominal wall and the visceral peritoneum which covers the viscera (the abdominal organs of digestion - stomach, intestines, etc..). Serous fluid fills the peritoneal cavity between these two layers
Ascites
A condition in which fluid collects in spaces within your abdomen. If severe, ascites may be painful. It can set the stage for an infection in your abdomen and the fluid may also move into your chest and surround your lungs. Most common cause of ascites is cirrhosis of the liver or different types of cancer
What are the 9 regions of the abdomen? (Right to left, top to bottom)
Right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondria region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac (inguinal) region, hypogastric region and left iliac (inguinal) region
What is found in the right hypochondriac region
Liver, gall bladder, the right kidney and parts of the small intestine
What is found in the epigastric region
Liver, part of the stomach, duodenum and pancreas, part of the spleen and adrenal glands
What is found in the left hypochondriac region
Contains part of the spleen, the left kidney, part of the stomach, the pancreas and parts of the colon
What is found in the right lumbar region
Gall bladder, right kidney, part of the liver and ascending colon
What is found in the left lumbar region
The descending colon, left kidney and part of the spleen
What is found in the umbilical region
The umbilicus, many parts of the intestines (duodenum, jejunum and the ileum), contains transverse colon and bottom portions of the left and right kidneys
What is found in the right iliac region
Contains the appendix, the cecum and the right iliac fossa (pain here often associated with appendicitis)
What is found in the left iliac region
Descending colon, sigmoid colon and the left iliac fossa
What is found in the hypogastric region
Contains the organs around the pubic bone - the bladder, part of the sigmoid colon, the anus and many organs of the reproductive system
Chemical level of organization
The simplest level of hierarchy, building blocks of all matter (atoms), combine to form molecules
Tissue level of organization
Tissue is made up of groups of cells that carry out a similar function. The four basic types are - epithelium, muscle, connective tissue and nervous tissue
Organ level of organization
Made up of at least 2 types of tissue to serve a function within the body
3 major parts of the human cell
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
Plasma membrane
Made up of primarily proteins in a phospholipid bilateral - made of polar hydrophilic (heads) and non-polar hydrophobic (tails) built from fatty acid chains. Hydrophilic heads are attached to water (found on outside extracellular and inside intracellular fluid, faces outside and inside surfaces of the membrane). Hydrophobic tails avoid water and are found in between the two layers of the membrane
Ability of the plasma membrane
The priorities of the heads and tails of the plasma membrane means it will easily assemble together to form a spherical structure and when torn it will reveal themselves. The membrane is a fluid structure which is always in flux
Proteins found within the cell membrane
Integral proteins - found within the bilateral, used mostly for transport
Peripheral proteins - loosely attached to integral proteins, mostly enzymes or support for the membrane
Glycoprotein
Protein with carbohydrate attached
Glycolipid
Lipid with carbohydrate attached
Functions of the cell membrane
Transport - hydrophilic channels allow water to pass (couldn’t with hydrophobic tails), active pumps to move substance across membranes
Signal transduction - the movement of a “message” from outside of the cell to the inside, allowing the cell to perform the correct response
Provides attachment for other cells or extracellular matrix
Passive transport
Molecules moving with a concentration gradient, no energy required
Diffusion
Molecules move from high concentration to low concentration to achieve equilibrium. To move through membrane “it” has to be - lipid soluble, small enough to pass through channels or be assisted by a carrier protein
Speed of diffusion
Dependent on the kinetic energy of the molecules
Simple diffusion
Unassisted, for small, hydrophobic, non-polar, lipid soluble molecules
Osmosis
The spontaneous diffusion of water or other solvent through a semi-permeable membrane down its concentration gradient, moves to dilute the more concentrated solution
Solute
Something that is found dissolved in the solvent (ex. Salt (NA) in water)
Facilitated diffusion
The movement of certain molecules using a passive transport method to pass through the bilateral, done using proteins which act as carriers in the membrane (carrier-facilitated diffusion) or using water-filled protein channels (channel-mediated facilitated diffusion)
Osmolarity
The number of particles (ions) per litre of solution, only concerned with the number of particles, not size or composition
Isotonic solution
Same osmolarity as body fluids, no movement
Hypotonic solution
Hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes than the cell, due to osmotic pressure, water will then diffuse into the cell to even out and the cell will appear turgid (or bloated)
Hypertonic solution
The solution contains more dissolved particles than the cell, therefore water will leave the cell to dilute the fluid around it, this causes the cell to look shrivelled
Active transport
Requires energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient
Sodium-Potassium pump
Sodium in cytoplasm of cell binds to the Na/K pump, this binding causes the breakdown of ATP into ADP and Pi, this phosphorylation process causes the receptor to change shape and release sodium out of the cell.
Potassium then binds from the extracellular fluid and causes the release of the phosphate group which causes the original shape of the receptor to be returned and potassium is released into the cytoplasm (the intracellular space)
Homeostasis
Maintaining internal conditions despite changes in the environment - balancing act, requiring endocrine and nervous system to maintain
Homeostatic regulation
Adjustments in physiological systems that preserve homeostasis
Negative feedback loop
3 main components - receptor, control centre and effector
- stimulus produces change in variable which is detected by the receptor
- this information is sent along afferent pathway to control centre
- control centre puts out information along efferent pathway to effector
- response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of the stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level
Positive feedback loop
The initial stimulus produces a response in the body to enhance the original condition of the stimulus thus increasing it
- body wants to keep adding to the situation which caused the stimulus in the first place
Example of positive feedback loop
Oxytocin is released by stimulation of stretch receptors during labour and this intensifies the contractions to become more powerful and frequent and these contractions produce more oxytocin to continue cycle when delivery
Example of negative feedback loop
Reduction in body temperature below homeostatic level results in hypothalamus sending message to shiver and this muscle contractions release heat to raise temperature, once reach, initial stimulus shuts off
Beginning process of metabolic process, simple terms
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins consumed, broken down into absorbable forms - amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids and glucose (or other sugars), these are then transported through the blood to tissues
Anabolism
Incorporation into molecules - using building blocks to form larger molecules (ex. Amino acids into proteins and glycerol and fatty acids into triglycerides)
Catabolism
Breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones (component parts)
Aerobic respiration
With oxygen, 3 stages - glycolysis, Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and oxidative phosphorylation
Anaerobic respiration
Sufficient oxygen not prescient, energy from glycolysis
Steps of glycolysis
- Glucose (6 carbons) converted into glucose 6 phosphate by hexokinase, ATP to ADP
- glucose 6-phosphate rearranged into fructose 6 phosphate by phosphoglucose isomerase
- fructose 6-phosphate converted into fructose 1-6 biphosphate by phosphofructose kinase, ATP into ADP
- fructose 1-6 biphosphate broken down into DHAP (dihydroxyacetone phosphate) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
- DHAP converted into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (now 2)
- both glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate each go through following steps
- G3P converted into 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate, NAD —> NADH + H
- 1,3 biphosphoglycerate converted into 3-phosphoglycerate, ADP —> ATP
- 3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate
- 2-phosphoglycerate into PEP, water released
- PEP into pyruvate, ADP into ATP
Glycolysis products
2 ATP (net), 4 total, 2 NADH and 2 pyruvate molecules
Advantages of aerobic metabolism
With oxygen is much better at producing energy (ATP) and produces less harmful byproducts (CO2)
- 30-32 ATP produced in the best conditions, compared to anaerobic which produces 2 ATP per cycle
Disadvantage of anaerobic respiration
Lactic acid and more CO2 produced, harmful byproducts
In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate ..
Gets rerouted into fermentation to get lactic acid
With sufficient oxygen, pyruvate …
Pyruvate moves into the inner mitochondrial membrane, then moves into Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle and then ultimately oxidative phosphorylation)
Krebs cycle
- pyruvate oxidized into acetyl-coA (NAD—> NADH)
- acetyl-coA into citrate into isocitrate
- isocitrate converted into alpha-ketoglutarate (NAD—> NADH, CO2 released)
- alpha-ketoglutarate into succinyl coA (NAD—> NADH, CO2 released)
- succinyl coA into succinate (GDP—>GTP, ADP—>ATP)
- succinate into fumarate (FAD—>FADH2)
- fumarate into malate (water added)
- malate into oxaloacetate (NAD—>NADH)
- oxaloacetate oxidized into acetyl-coA to begin cycle again
Products of kreb’s cycle
Per pyruvic acid = 2 CO2, 4 reduced enzymes (3 NADH, 1 FADH2) and 1 ATP
2 pyruvic acids from 1 glucose (x2 for total glycolysis to kreb’s cycle)
Oxidative phosphorylation
- Reduced co-enzymes (FADH2 and NADH) deliver electrons picked up during the last few phases to complexes I and II
- electrons transferred from one complex to another down the membrane
- each complex is reduced and then oxidized releasing energy that is used to pump H+ into the inter membrane space which creates an electrochemical gradient between the matrix and the inter membrane space
- coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) and cytochrome C are mobile carriers that shuttle between the larger complexes
- at complex IV, electron pairs combine with two protons to form water
- at complex V, called ATP synthase, energy from the proton gradient allows the synthesis of ADP into ATP
- produces about 24-28 ATP
Lactic acid cycle - presence of oxygen
Lactate gets oxidized back to pyruvate and sent to the aerobic pathway.
Lactate is taken over to the liver and is converted back to sugar via gluconeogenesis known as the lactic acid cycle or the cori cycle
- if this new glucose is not currently needed it can be stored as glycogen (using glycogenesis)
Lactate in the absence of oxygen
Lactate will continue to build up, when lactic acid is produced it immediately dissociates into lactate and hydrogen ion (proton) which increases the acidity of the cell (drops pH) and contributes to fatigue of the muscle and reduced firing strength
Gluconeogenesis in the liver (simple terms)
Lactate converted back to pyruvate and 6 ATP are needed to reform glucose
Glycogenesis
Glucose molecules are combined into long chains of glycogen to then be stored for later use
Excess glucose
Majority of it will be stored as fat (about 80-85% of energy storage is in the form of fat)
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen broken down, glycogen converted into glucose 1-phosphate and then glucose 6-phosphate
- glucose 6-phosphate is trapped in the cell because it cannot cross the membrane
- hepatocytes (and some kidney and intestinal cells) contain glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) to produce free glucose (now can leave the cell and enter the blood stream)
- large glycogen storage in liver
Glucagon
Given when there are low blood sugar levels (made naturally by the alpha cells of the pancreas), it stimulates the conversion of stored glycogen in the liver to glucose when then can be released into the bloodstream
- stimulates glycogenolysis
Lipolysis
- triglycerides broken down into fatty acids and glycerol
- fatty acids are oxidized into acetyl-coA by beta oxidation
- acetyl-coA then used in Kreb’s cycle
- glycerol directly enters the glycolysis pathway as DHAP
(Because one triglyceride can yield 3 fatty acid molecules with as much as 16 or more carbons in each one, fat molecules yield way more energy than carbohydrates, yield more than twice the amount of energy)
Ketogenesis
- occurs when we lack carbohydrates, begins to use fats as energy source
- oxaloacetate or another intermediate molecule of the kreb’s cycle depletes and therefor acetyl-coA cannot enter the cycle anymore, it begins to build up
- the liver converts acetyl-coA into ketone bodies by ketogenesis
- this leads to ketosis are release of ketone bodies in urine
- most ketone bodies are organic acids —> metabolic acidosis
Examples of ketone bodies
Acetoacetic acid, beta-hydroxybutyric acid and acetone
