Chapter 1 - Keywords Flashcards
Independent Variable
A variable we deliberately cause, something that causes something to happen
Dependent Variable
A variable that we measure
Extraneous Variables
Any variable other than IV that particularly affects the DV and mixes up the results. We need to control the effect of these to establish cause and effect relationships
Participant Variables
Factors with a person that can vary over time or vary with a situation, plus factors that differ between people e.g age, gender, ethnicity
Situational Variable
Factors that can vary in the environment e.g noise, temperature, number of people.
Repeated measures
Same participants are used in each condition so that the results are down to their own control.
What is the advantages of using a Repeated measures design?
2
◦ There’s no participant variables
◦ You need fewer people total for experiments.
What is the disadvantages of using a Repeated measures design?
(2)
◦ It may effect the experiment due to the participants have fatigue, boredom.
◦ Participants may guess the aim due to demand
characteristics.
Independent Design
Use different participants, assigning them to each experiment place.
What is the advantages of using an Independent measures design?
(2)
◦ No order due to participant only completing one condition.
◦ Less likely of demand characteristics taking place
What is the disadvantage of using an Independent measures design?
◦ Requires more participants to complete the experiments.
Hypothesis
A precise prediction of what is going to happen
Alternative/experimental Hypothesis
That there will be (A) significant difference
Null Hypothesis
That there will be (NO) significant difference
Matched Pairs
Participant are paired with another in various conditions for participant variables in the study e,g intelligence, gender, age
What is the advantages of using matched pairs?
2
◦ Avoids order effects
◦ Fewer participants variables because of pairs and match groups
What is the disadvantage of using matched pairs?
◦ It’s time consuming finding pairs
Falsification
As a science psychology should always produce precise, operationalised hypotheses that can be proven false
Counterbalancing
Varying the order of participants e.g AB/BA
Demand Characteristics
Hints, clues from the environment or psychologists that may influence participants behaviour or help them guess the aim.
Target Population
The group of people the researcher is interested and can generalise findings for this group.
Sampling
The selected participants taken from the target population that we use in our research.
Sampling Methods
Technique used to choose our sample from the target population
Representativeness
The extent to which our sample reflects the characteristics of our target population
Generalisability
The extent to which the sample has similar characteristics to the target population
What is the advantage of using random sampling?
◦ The method which is most likely to gain a representative sample
What is the disadvantages of using random sampling?
2
◦ Time consuming
◦ Participants may not want to take part resulting in samples becoming biased
Opportunity Sampling
Participants that are most easily available at the time
What is the advantage of using Opportunity sampling?
◦ The easiest method as it is time effective and cost effective to locate participants
What is the disadvantage of using Opportunity sampling?
2
◦ Likely to produce biased samples
◦ Participants would probably have to have similar characteristics, making it unable to generalise our results to the target population
Self - selected Sampling
Participants have volunteered themselves
What is the advantage of using Opportunity sampling?
3
◦ Can reduce participant attention (drop out rate) due to them getting involved them- selves
◦ Easier to gain consent due to their obvious willingness.
◦ Easy to advertise and for them to contact you
What is the disadvantage of using Opportunity sampling?
◦ Participants are likely to have similar characteristics meaning samples is more biased
Snowball Sampling
Initial participants are used to generate other participants e.g their friends (word of mouth)
What is the advantage of using Snowball sampling?
◦ Can help researchers identify participants that are difficult to locate e.g gamblers or addicts
What is the disadvantage of using Snowball sampling?
◦ Sample is likely to be biased making it difficult to generalise results to the target population
Laboratory Experiment
IV is manipulated in a controlled environment.
What is the advantages of using a Laboratory Experiment?
2
◦ We have high control over extraneous variables, making it easier to establish cause and effect.
◦ Easy to replicate as the environment is controlled.
What is the disadvantages of using a Laboratory Experiment?
2
◦ The environment may be artificial meaning low ecological validity.
◦ participants may realise what we are studying, creating a demand characteristic.
Field Experiment
IV is manipulated in a everyday/natural setting.
What is the advantages of using a Field Experiment?
2
◦ Environment is less artificial to high ecological validity.
◦ Participants may be less likely to relate to what we are studying, resulting to fewer demand characteristics.
What is the disadvantages of using a Field Experiment?
2
◦ Reduces control over extraneous variables.
◦ Participants are often unaware that they are being studied, breaking ethical guidelines.
Quasi Experiment
Experiment does not manipulate the IV and it is typically naturally occurring.
What is the advantage of using a Quasi Experiment?
◦ Allow us to research an IV we could not ethically manipulate
What is the disadvantage of using a Quasi Experiment?
◦ Can limit the amount of control over extraneous variables.
Observation Method
Systematically watching and taking direct records of participants verbal and physical behaviour
What is the advantage of using an observational method?
◦ We are able to see what participants do rather than what they say they do
What is the disadvantage of using an observational method?
◦ While we can see what they are doing, we cannot guess why and would need a self report
Coding Frames
A list of behavioural categories e.g tally charts
Behavioural Categories
Dividing behaviour into categories in a structural conservation. Good categories are precise and operationalised and will give us quantitative data.
Observer Bias
When we lose our objectivity and see what we want or were expecting to see.
Ecological Validity
When the presence of a observer creates a demand characteristic which then can influence the participant behaviour.
Covert Observation
Observing a participants behaviour without their knowledge
What is the advantage of a covert observation?
◦ Participants are more likely to behave naturally in a covert observation
What is the disadvantage of a covert observation?
◦ Observing without their knowledge breaks the consent description, right to withdraw and privacy ethical guidelines (unless its a public place.
Overt Observation
A participant is aware that we are observing their behaviour
What is the advantage of an overt observation?
◦ Ethical as it avoids the issues above
What is the disadvantage of an overt observation?
◦ Likely to introduce a demand characteristic (observer effect), causing participant to change their behaviour.
Participant Observation
Observer participates in the behaviour being observed e.g pretending to be a drug addict when they actually aren’t
What is the advantages of a participant observation?
3
◦ Likely to provide unique insights of behaviour as we are “insiders”
◦ We will have close proximity to behaviour that is recorded
◦ Behaviour seen will be natural
What is the disadvantages of an overt observation?
4
◦ We become less objective as an observer (biased)
◦ It can be difficult to record data in secret
◦ Ethical issues such as deception are a problem
◦ Our involvement may influence the behaviour we are observing
Non-Participant Observation
Observer is not a participant in the behaviour being observed
What is the advantages of a non-participant observation?
3
◦ We remain objective as we are not taking part in the behaviour
◦ Easier to record data as we are not doing so in secret
◦ Ethical issues above are no problem
What is the disadvantages of a non-participant observation?
2
◦ We may misinterpret what we are seeking as we are not part of the behaviour being observed , unless you’re not participating.
◦ If you’re not participating, would you understand the reality.
Structured Observation
Recording behaviour in a systematic manner to organise our data e.g coding scheme
What is the advantages of a Structured observation?
2
◦ Observations are easier to repeat in the future and its reliability.
◦ Results are likely to be easier to analyse.
What is the disadvantages of a Structured observation?
2
◦ Observers may differ in their views of the coding scheme called observer bias
◦We need some knowledge of the behaviours to create a CS.
Unstructured Observation
Observing all behaviours that might be relevant without system.
What is the advantages of a unstructured observation?
2
◦ Useful when we are studying behaviour that is unpredictable
◦ Very useful for pilot studies (practicing something)
What is the advantage of a unstructured observation?
◦ The behaviour that most catch our attention, might not be the most important to record.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing participants in a natural setting that would be the same if the observer was present.
What is the advantage of a Naturalistic observation?
◦ More likely to see natural behaviour as well as fewer demand characteristics that would affect our results.
What is the disadvantages of a Naturalistic observation?
2
◦ We have reduced control over the environment so more extraneous variables can affect our results.
◦ Often done covertly and can have ethical issues.
Controlled Observation
The environment is changed or controlled because of the observation.
What is the advantage of a controlled observation?
◦ Greater control of the environment so fewer extraneous variables
What is the disadvantage of a controlled observation?
◦ Greater control means the environment will be artificial, so behaviour is less natural.
Time Sampling
Recording behaviour in regular intervals e.g recording data every 5 minutes
What is the advantages of time sampling?
2
◦ It is easier to conduct with a large group or with fast changing behaviour.
◦ Useful if you have to watch something for a long time.
What is the disadvantage of time sampling?
◦ We cannot record behaviour that occurs between intervals meaning rare behaviours are often missed.
Event Sampling
Using behaviour categories and a coding frame and recording behaviour from our list each time it occurs during a specified time
What is the advantage of event sampling?
◦ Results will be more representative of unusual behaviours that may not often occur.
What is the disadvantage of event sampling?
◦ Can be difficult to conduct for a large group of participants or where behaviour is changing quickly, increases the chance of missing an event.
What is a Self Report Method?
It is a method by which we ask participants about their thoughts, feeling and opinions. It is the ONLY method we can use to directly measure thoughts, feelings and opinions.
What is the advantage of a Self Report Method?
◦ They can give a valid measure of thought, feelings and opinions
What is the disadvantage of a Self Report Method?
◦ Participants might be, show social desirability (what sounds good / socially acceptable), bias or misunderstand the questions, reducing validity.
What is a Questionnaire
participants record their own responses, often using a pen and paper or done by phone or internet
What is the advantages of a Questionnaire?
2
◦They can be quick and easy to carry out and are cheap to give to a large number of geographically diverse people.
◦ Participants may be happier to reveal honest information in a questionnaire rather than face to face.
What is the disadvantages of a Questionnaire?
3
◦ They can contain leading questions, ambiguous questions or even too many questions
◦ People may feel they need to answer in a particular way (social desirability)
◦ Also they can tend to have a low response rate/getting the questionnaire back.
◦Certain people only answer questionnaire, e.g time on their hands, no job
What is an Interview?
Are usually conducted face to face, and they can be written down on the spot, recorded/transcribed
What is the advantages of an Interview?
2
◦ Participants can ask questions if they feel they do not understand
◦A skilled interviewer and may be able to reveal more information than would be gained in a questionnaire
What is the disadvantages of an Interview?
2
◦ Because they are conducted face to face participant cannot answer anonymously which could lead to greater evaluation anxiety (worried that the interviewer will judge you) and social desirable answers.
◦ It can be harder to maintain inter-rater reliability where more than one interviewer being used.
Inter-Rater Reliability
The extent to which to which two or more raters in an observation or self report agree to the results they have collected.
Three ways in how you can improve Inter-Rater Reliability
◦ Use operationalised categories
◦ Practice categories in a plot study
◦ Train raters on how to use categories
What does it mean if their is low Inter-Rater Reliability
Low inter-rater reliability = No consistency
Unstructured Interview
Some questions are predetermined but the interviewer has the freedom to follow up interesting responses.
What is the advantage of a Unstructured Interview ?
◦ You can gather lots of in depth and detailed information and may reflect more accurate participants true feelings and thoughts.
What is the disadvantage of a Unstructured Interview ?
◦ Likely to cover a broad range of topics so it will be difficult to compare and analyse results of different participants as they may be asked different things
Semi Structured Interview
There are no set questions, but the researcher may have a list of prompts or topics. The researchers questions follow on from what the interviewee has answered.
What is the advantages of a Semi Structured Interview ?
2
◦ Can gather qualitative data, so the results would be richer
◦ We may discover information
What is the disadvantage of a Semi Structured Interview ?
◦ May be more prone to interviewer bias as they develop questions on the spot.
Interviewer Bias
structure/phrasing of questionsaskedin the interviewingprocess which can influence participantsresponsesin such a way that it distorts the outcome of theinterview.
Structured Interview
Uses a predetermined set of questions asked in the same way for each participant
What is the advantages of a Structured Interview ?
2
◦ It is easier to repeat with many participants as the questions don’t change
◦ Easier to analyse and compare participants as the questions don’t change between participants
What is the disadvantages of a Structured Interview ?
2
◦ Because it is in artificial nature, participants may feel evaluation apprehension and give socially desirable answers
◦ Harder to follow up interesting answers as questions are restricted e.g if they something interesting, you cannot ask to go more in depth into their answe
Open Questions
Participants are unrestricted in the answers they can give and tend to provide qualitative data
What is the advantages of Open Questions ?
2
◦ Provides rich, detailed and in depth data
◦ More likely to be reflective of participants true thoughts and feelings, making data more detailed
What is the disadvantage of Open Questions ?
◦ Due to the wide range of responses that participants gives can make it difficult and time consuming to analyse data
Closed Questions
Participants are restricted in the answers that they are allowed to provide
What is the advantage of Closed Questions ?
◦ Very easy to score and graph data therefore easier to draw conclusions from
What is the disadvantages of Closed Questions ?
2
◦ With restricted range of responses, participants may be fixed to answer in a particular way to reduce validity
◦ We main not gain as much detailed responses (less valid measure of feelings)
Likert Rating Scale
Provides quantative data and allows the participant to show the extent of their feelings.
Can also use words rather than numbers e.g
l-------------------------l-------------------------l Agree Neutral Disagree
What is the advantage of a Likert Rating Scale ?
◦ They have more depth than a yes/no question but it is still easy to analyse and compare responses
What is the disadvantages of using a Likert Rating Scale ?
3
◦ They can force a participant to be positive or negative in an easy scale e.g scale of 1-4
◦ Quantative data is less descriptive/representative of participants feelings
◦ Where there is a middle value, participants may choose to go neutral throughout
Semantic Differential Rating Scale
Use verbal descriptions that are opposite each other to create a scale e.g
l--------------------------------------------------l Easy Hard
What is the advantages of using a Semantic Differential Rating Scale ?
◦ They have more depth than a yes/no question but it is still easy to analyse and compare responses
What is the disadvantage of using a Semantic Differential Rating Scale?
◦ Participants may be unsure of the meaning of the terms and there may be cultural differences
What is the description and give an example of nominal data
Categories, e.g gender
What is the description and give an example of ordinal data
Ranking, e.g grades
What is the description and give an example of interval data
Continuous data where differences between intervals are equal, e.g temperature
What is the description and give an example of ratio data
Has an absolute zero & intervals are equal, e.g money or time
