Chapter 1: Intro to Pathology & Homeostasis Flashcards
What is pathophysiology?
the study of abnormalities in physiology
the study of abnormal functioning of diseased organs
How is physiology different than pathophysiology?
Physiology is the science of how the body functions
Pathophysiology is the science of how the body functions DURING disease
Name the four aspects of disease.
Etiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Manifestation
Treatment Implications
Etiology
the cause of disease
Name the etiologic classifications.
Congenital Inherited Metabolic Degenerative Neoplasia Immunologic Nutritional Psychogenic Infectious Physical agents Iatrogentic Idiopathic
What is a congenital etiology?
means existing at birth or before birth (prenatal incluences)
“in utero”
Example of congenital etiology?
Spina bifida, cleft palate
What is an inherited etiology?
Disease is due to genes received from parents
What’s an important note about inherited vs genetic etiologies?
Genetic disorders are caused by mutated genes. These mutated genes can be inherited OR from a new mutation in the individual
True or False:
All genetic disorders are are inherited from parents
False; mutations can be found just in the individual
What is a metabolic etiology?
Due to abnormalities in chemical pathways of body cells
Happens because of malfunctioning enzymes required for metabolic pathways
What is a degenerative etiology?
Tissues cells breakdown
Part of normal aging process (or abnormal)
ex: osteoporosis via endocrine malfunction
What is Neoplasia?
New growth due to abnormal cell division
These new growths can be BENIGN or MALIGNANT
ex: Papilloma (benign) or squamous cell carcinoma (malignant)
What is immunologic etiology?
The immune system under reacts (AIDS) or over reacts
autoimmune diseases
What is a nutritional etiology?
Typically nutritional disease that is due to nutritional deficiencies
ex: Iron deficiency (anemia)
What is a psychogenic etiology?
Disease of mental origin
Emotional stress contributes to many diseases or alters its course
How do psychogenic diseases originate?
Originate due to stress, leading to production of certain hormones that impact immune system’s ability to normally fight disease
What is an infectious etiology?
Disease caused by pathogen
What are pathogens?
Pathogens are disease causing organisms
The difference between an etiology and a specific etiology?
Etiology is the study of a disease’s origin, whereas a specific etiology refers to the specific cause, not the general category it falls under
Ex: Bacterial infection is an infectious etiology. Helicobacter pylori infection is a SPECIFIC etiology bc it a specific bacterial infection.
Describe physical agent etiologies.
Caused by toxic chemicals, mechanical injury, radiation, force, temperature, humidity, electricity, etc.
Caused by inanimate factor
ex: Acid burns
Describe idiopathic etiologies.
Condition caused by medical treatment
Physician or healthcare provider caused
It’s an example of an idiopathic caused disease.
Hypothyroidism can result when the thyroid gland is surgically removed by the physician. Parathyroid is found on the thyroid gland.
Pathogenesis
The development of a disease
The progress and mechanisms involved in the disease
Sequence of events that occurs to cause a disease
Once we know the pathogenesis of a disease, what can we do about it then?
We observe its clinical manifestation in patients
aka, we look at signs and symptoms due to the pathogenesis process’
Clinical Manifestations
How the disease process becomes apparent, or manifests itself, in the person
Signs and symptoms occurring due to pathogenesis
The outcome of the pathogenesis brings consequences. What are they specifically called in the clinical field?
Signs and symptoms
Why are signs and symptoms so important and what do with them?
They are the functional and structural consequences of the disease process.
We use them as measurements for disease severity
Signs
Objectively identifiable aberration of disease that can be detected by the observer
Objective data that can be gathered by clinical exam or laboratory testing
ex: fever, reddening of skin, palpable mass, EKG…
Symptoms
Subjective feeling of discomfort felt by subject that can be reported to an observer
These are things only the patient can feel, like nausea, pain, fatigue, stuff we as clinicians can measure objectively
Syndrome
A collection of different signs and symptoms that occur together
ex: down syndrome, carpal tunnel syndrome, etc.
How is downsyndrome a syndrome?
It is a collection of manifestations that we see because of an extra chromosome
ex: physical characteristics (small neck, squinted eyes, protruding tongue)
mental retardation is hard to measure
Explain the flow of etiology to clinical manifestations
Etiology is the cause. That cause, whatever it may be, begins a development. That disease then develops enough to present an outcome, which we can observe or have described to us via clinical manifestations.
Knowing the etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations of a disease helps us to do what?
Understanding the etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations allows us to make decisions regarding how that disease is treated and the options we have
True or false:
The goal of treatment is to understand the general options, not the specific ones.
True.
The goal is to understand the pathophysiologic reason WHY a certain treatment makes sense.
Acute
brief, short course
sometimes refers to condition with relatively severe manifestations but running a short course
What’s another way to reference an acute phenomenon?
Give an example of an acute pathophysiologic development.
sudden onset and severe (not always, but most often referenced this way)
aute inflammation: hasn’t been going on for long
Chronic
Condition that lasts for a long period of time
Systemic
Wide spread
ex: autoimmune (whole immune system malfunction)
Local
confined to one region
ex: benign neoplasia
Exacerbation
Increase in signs and symptoms of a disease
Getting worse
ex: increased coughing due to ……
Remission
Decline in signs and symptoms of disease, or “quiet period”
ex: cancer remission
Convalescence
Recovery stage after a disease
ex: covid brain
Sequela
Condition caused by and following a disease
Secondary problem that is a consequence of another disease
How can parathyroid hormone cause sequela?
Parathyroid hormone initiates osteoclast action. Osteoclasts bring too much calcium into the system causing small calcifications in the kidney also called kidney stones. The Kidney stones are the sequela.
Epidemiology
the study of disease and patterns of disease within a population
Focus on population rather than the individual
Homeostasis
The maintenance of your body’s internal environment within acceptable ranges
True or False:
Homeostasis is an absolute state.
False. It is a dynamic because it is a continuous process.
Allostasis
Adaptation that must occur to maintain homeostasis
Homeostasis is maintained by the use of _________________ mechanisms.
Feedback
something must be added or taken away to return back to a target point of regulation
List the components of a feedback system.
- Receptor
- Control (integrating) center
- Effectors
What are receptors of a feedback mechanism?
They are structures that monitor the condition being controlled.
How do receptors function? What is their role?
the send a signal message to the control (integrating) center via sensory (afferent) neurons.
Can you give an example of a receptor? Explain.
Baroreceptors in the carotid artery.
These receptors monitor blood pressure and then send input to the medulla oblongata (control center) about the status of the blood pressure
What is the control center?
Area the integrates the information received by the receptors AND determines if the controlled condition is within acceptable ranges.
Found in brain or spinal cord
Describe the role of the control center.
It determines the normal set point
Also sends output to effectors if the current condition needs to be changed.
Ex: Medulla oblongata processes set point for BP and can relay output to cardiac muscles to make any needed adjustments
What are effectors?
Muscles or glands that can cause a change in the controlled condition
ex: cardiac muscles receive output from medulla oblongata to either increase force of contraction or lessen force, depending if BP needs to be lowered or increased.
Thermoregulation
The ability for an organism to maintain a certain body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different
Describe the process of a fever the homeostatic response to an ALTERED set point.
Bacteria infection
Macrophage engulfs and digests
Interleukins released
Hypothalamus gets signal of interleukins and signals release of prostaglandin
Prostaglandin release goes back to hypothalamus and tells it to increase the body temp. set point
Set point increase raises body temp. bc prostaglandin keeps telling hypothalamus to raise its set point.
With set point raised, we see shivering bc muscles (effectors) are relayed the output to generate heat to maintain that new high set point.
How is the newly raised set point brought back down to equilibrium?
Anti-prostaglandins are introduced to prevent prostaglandin from being produced from hypothalamus. With the loss of prostaglandin, thermoreceptors and finally override the increase heat message and let the hypothalamus know that temperature is way too high. The control center/hypothalamus will then send output to sweat glands (effectors) to cool the body down. This process will bring the fever down to normal body temp.
Negative Feedback System
System in which the effectors cause the change in the controlled condition to reverse and return to the normal state.
something is being taken away to bring back to normal
True or False:
Negative feedback systems are the common way body homeostasis is maintained.
True. Positive feedback loops are in pregnancy.
Describe a negative feedback loop involving decreased blood pressure.
Say you are lying down for a nap, but nap time is over so you stand up to get out of the bed. When you stand up, your BP will fall bc there is less blood being brought back to the heart due to gravity taking it all to the lower body first. This BP fall is a stimulis recognized by baroreceptors in the arteries, and they relay this input via sensory nerve fibers. Those sensory nerve fibers travel to the medulla oblongata control center. The CC the sends an output message to cardiac muscle via motor fibers to increase contraction, therefore increasing heart rate. Increased heart rate means more force of blood being pumped, therefore we see an increase in BP.
