Chapter 1: Body Flashcards
Gross Anatomy
no magnification
Visualization and Observation
Regional vs. Systemic Approach
Anatomical Position
standard reference position used to describe structures: upright, feet together, hands by side, palms and face forward
Coronal Plane
divides body into anterior and posterior
Sagittal Plane
divides body into left and right
Transverse Plane
(or horizontal or axial)
divides body into superior and inferior
Anterior (or Ventral)
position of structure relative to front
Posterior (or Dorsal)
positions of structures relative to back
Medial
position relative to the median sagittal plane
Lateral
position relative to the median and body sides
Superior
position relative to body vertical axis (above)
Inferior
position relative to body vertical axis (below)
Proximal
closer from origin of structure
Distal
farther from origin of structure
Cranial
toward the head
may be used instead of superior and inferior
Caudal
toward the tail
may be used instead of superior and inferior
Rostral
position relative to nose
Superficial
position relative to body surface
Deep
Position relative to body surface
X-rays
electromagnetic radiation that attenuates as it passes through body tissue before interacting with photographic film
- High attenuation -> film is exposed to few x-rays -> white
- Little attenuation on air
- More attenuation on fat (but less in water)
- Most attenuation on bone
Contrast Agents
increase attenuation for better visualization
ex. Barium sulfate for GI images
Subtraction Angiography
uses an inverted pre-contrast image compared to a post-contrast image to “subtract” structures for imaging arteries/veins only
Ultrasound
uses high frequency sound waves that bounce off of structures and are processed to images
Doppler Ultrasound
is used to determine flow, direction, and velocity
Computed Tomography (CT)
used to create a series of images generated by passing body through x-ray tube
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
depends on water in body tissues, specifically hydrogen’s protons that act like magnets in a magnetic field and deflect in response to radio waves; the strength and frequency of signals emitted as they return to the original state is converted to images
Axial
cranium, vertebral column, ribs, sternum
Appendicular
upper and lower limbs
Cartilage
avascular connective tissue, that supports soft tissue, provides gliding surface for bones, support bone growth/development
Hyaline Cartilage
most common, articular surfaces of bone
Elastic Cartilage
elastic fiber (external ear)
Fibrocartilage
mostly collagen (intervertevral discs)
Bones
calcified, living, connective tissue
Functions include:
-Supportive structure for body
-Protects vital organs
-Reservoir for calcium, phosphorus
-Lever s for muscle action to produce movement
-Location of blood-producing cells
-Vascular, innervated
-Nutrient artery
-Periosteum covers external surface (fibrous membrane that forms new bone)
-Nerves supply bone and periosteum
–Internal cavity nerves regulate blood flow
–Periosteum nerves are sensory (for injury detection)
Compact Bone
dense, forms outer shell of all bones, surrounds spongy bone
Spongy Bone
cavities containing blood-forming cells
Long Bones
tubular (ex. humerous in upper limb, femur in lower limb)
Short Bones
cubodial (ex. wrist and ankle bones)
Flat Bones
2 compact bone plates separated by spongy bone (ex. skull)
Irregular Bones
various shape (ex. facial bones)
Sesamoid Bones
round or oval, develop in tendons
Synovial Joints
separate skeletal components with a cavity
- Cartilage covers articulating skeletal surfaces
- Joint capsule with inner synovial membrane and outer fibrous membrane
- Synovial membrane produces synovial fluid, which lubricates articulating surfaces
- Fibrous membrane stabilizes joint, can thicken to form ligaments
- Possible accessory structures
Solid Joints
held together by connective tissue, no cavity
-Adjacent surface linked by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage
Articular Discs
absorb compression force, adjust to contour changes during movement, increase range of movement
Fat Pads
provide cushion during contour changes
Plane (flat)
sliding of one bone moves across surface of another
Hinge
movement about one axis passing transversely (elbow)
Pivot
movement about one axis passing longitudinally (atlas-axis)
Bicondylar
about most one axis, limited about second (knee)
Condylar (ellipsoid)
about two axes at right angles (wrist)
Saddle
about two axes at right angles, saddle shaped (thumb)
Ball & Socket
about multiple axes (hip)
Uniaxial Movement
one plane
Biaxial Movement
two planes
Multiaxial Movement
three planes
Sutures (Fibrous Joints)
skull only, adjacent bones linked by thin connective tissue (sutural ligament)
Gomphoses (Fibrous Joints)
teeth and bone only
Syndesmoses (Fibrous Joints)
two adjacent bones linked by ligament
Synchondroses (Cartilaginous Joints)
developing bones separated by cartilage
Symphyses (Cartilaginous Joints)
separate bones interconnected by cartilage
Skin
largest organ of body
-Functions as mechanical and permeability barrier, sensory and thermoregulatory organ, initiator of primary immune response
Epidermis
outer avascular cell layer
Dermis
vascular connective tissue
Superficial (subcutaneous) Fascia
attached to dermis, allows skin movement, passage for vessels and nerves, energy (fat reservoir)
Deep Fascia
attached to superficial fascia, compartmentalizes muscles with similar functions, holds tendons in place, separates cavity linings from muscle coverings
Skeletal Muscle (Voluntary)
long, parallel, multi-nucleated fibers w/ transverse stripes
- Powerful contractions
- Innervated by somatic (body wall) and brachial motor nerves
- Moves bones, other structures, provides support
- Muscles named based on shape, attachment, function, position, and/or fiber orientation
Cardiac Muscle (Involuntary)
striated, in heart walls only
- Cells linked electrically and mechanically to function as unit
- Fatigue resistant
- Innervated by visceral (organ/vessel) motor nerves
Smooth Muscle (Involuntary)
spindle shaped fibers for slow, sustained contraction
-Innervated by visceral motor nerves
Cardiovascular System
includes heart (pump) and vessels (tubes) to transport blood throughout body
Arteries
transport blood away from heart
Veins
transport blood toward heart
- Vein walls are thin
- Lumen of veins are large in diameter
- Often multiple veins closely associated with arteries in the peripheral areas
- Veins often have valves (especially inferior to heart) to facilitate blood flow toward heart
Capillaries
connect arteries and veins, site of oxygen, nutrient, and waster exchange
Tunics
vessel walls
Tunica Externa (adventitia)
outer connective tissue
Tunica Media
middle smooth muscle layer
Tunica Intima
inner endothelial layer
Arteries & Veins
classified by amoint of smooth muscle and elastic fibers, vessel size, function
Large Elastic Arteries
much elastic fibers for expansion and recoil during cardiac cycle (aorta, pulmonary truck
Medium Muscular Arteries
mostly smooth muscle for regulating diameter and blood flow (femoral)
Small Arteries, Arterioles
control capillary filling and arterial pressure
Large Veins
thick tunica externa, some smooth muscle (superior vena cava)
Small, Medium Veins
thick tunica externa, little smooth muscle
Venules
smallest veins, drain capillaries
Lymphatic Vessels
collect fluid lost from capillary beds, interstitial fluids (pathogens, cell products, hormones, debris, fat absorbed by gut)
- Lymphatic vessels absent from brain, bone marrow, avascular tissues
- Lymph movement generated by muscle contraction and/or valves
Lymph
clear, colorless fluid (chyle from small intestine contains chylomicrons)
Chylomicrons
protein coated lipid droplets
Lymph Nodes
capsules contain lymphocytes, macrophages, filters; abundant at high risk sites for pathogen entry
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain, spinal cord; develops from neural tube
Somatic CNS
sensory nerves from periphery and motor nerves innervating voluntary muscles
- Innervates skin and skeletal muscle
- Develops in association with somites in embryo (somites give rise to skeletal muscle, skin dermis)
- Receives and responds to info from external environment
Visceral CNS
sensory nerves monitoring viscera and motor nerves innervating smooth and cardiac muscle, glands
- Innervated viscera, smooth and cardiac muscle, glands
- Segmentally arranged, develops in parallel
- Receives and responds to info from internal environment
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
everything outside of CNS (spinal, cranial, visceral nerves and plexuses); develops from nerual crest cells
Brain (CNS)
cerebral hemispheres
Gray Matter
outer portion that contains cell bodies
White Matter
inner portion that contains axon tracts/paths
Ventricles
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) filled spaces
Cerebellum
two lateral lobes, diencaphalon
Brainstem
midbrain, pons, medulla
Meninges
connective tissue that surrounds, protects, suspends brain and spinal cord
Dura Matter
thickest, most external
Arachnoid Mater
internal surface of dura
Subarachnoid space
contains CSF
Pia Mater
adheres to brain and spinal cord
Somatic Sensory Afferent
neurons carry temperature, pain, touch, proprioception (position) info from the periphery to the CNS
Somatic Motor Efferent
neurons carry info away from the CNS to skeletal muscles
Dermatomes
area of skin supplied by a single spinal cord level or single spinal nerve
Myotome
portion of skeletal muscle innervated by a single spinal cord level or spinal nerve
Visceral Sensory Afferent
neurons associated with chemoreception, mechanoreception, stretch reception
Visceral Motor Efferent
neurons innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle glands
-Motor neurons synapse with other motor neurons outside CNS
Ganglion
collection of neuron cell bodies
Preganglionic
visceral motor neurons and their axons in the spinal cord
- Visceral sensory fibers enters spinal as posterior roots of spinal nerves
- Visceral motor neurons exit spinal cord as anterior roots of spinal nerves
Postganglionic
visceral motor neurons and their axons outside the CNS
-Postganglionic fibers traveling to viscera are posterior and anterior rami (branches) of spinal nerves
Sympathetic
motor neurons in level T1 to L2
- Innervates structures in peripheral body and viscera
- Can travel to periphery in the same spinal nerve in which they travel out of the spinal cord
- Can travel to the periphery in different spinal nerves in which they travel out of the spinal cord
- Preganglionic fibers can synapse with postganglionic motor neurons that travel to target thoracic or cervical viscera
Parasympathetic
motor neurons in cranial and sacral levels
- Innervate viscera only
- Sacral preganglionic parasympathetic fibers form pelvic splanchnic nerves and pelvic/abdominal viscera
Cardiac Nerves
may ascend, synapse with postganglionic fibers, then to combine to form visceral nerves
Splanchnic Nerves
preganglionic fibers can travel without synapsing and together with fibers from other levels to form this
Enteric System
sensory and motor neurons that connect myenteric and submucous plexuses in the walls of the GI tract
-Controls reflexes that regulate peristalsis, secretomotor activity, vascular tone
Plexus
somatic and visceral fibers from different sources can combine to form new nerves with specific targets
Referred Pain
sensory info coming to the spinal cord from one location is interpreted by the CNS as coming from another location innervated by the same spinal cord level
-Often referred from a region innervated by visceral part of nervous system to a region innervated by the somatic system (at the same level)
