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General Pathology > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is the study of suffering or disease?

A

pathology

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2
Q

what three things do the study of the changes of pathology occur to?

A

cellular level, tissue changes, organs

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3
Q

what is the basis for rational care?

A

prognosis (what is to come next)

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4
Q

define etiology.

A

origin of disease; the “why”

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5
Q

true or false. etiology deals with the nature and nurture theory.

A

true

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6
Q

define the nature/nurture theory as it pertains to etiology.

A

genetic risks/environmental factors (cig smoke)

ionized radiation, increased risk for cancer

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7
Q

what is the origin of disease?

A

etiology

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8
Q

define pathogenesis.

A

steps of development of disease; the “how”

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9
Q

what are etiological factor affects pathogenesis usually for the worst?

A

cellular change

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10
Q

what term is defined as the steps of development of disease; the “how”?

A

pathogenesis

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11
Q

what are three types of altered appearance (morphology)?

A

gross, microscopic, biochemical

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12
Q

what is an example of a biochemical altered appearance?

A

number of cells in blood substance in urine

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13
Q

how does health originate from cellular homeostasis?

A

preserve viability of cells; must also adapt to stress

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14
Q

what are the four types of adaptation that affect cellular homeostasis?

A
  1. hypertrophy 2. hyperplasia 3. atrophy 4. metaplasia
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15
Q

if a cell’s ability to adapt is exceeded, what will it lead to?

A

injury

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16
Q

what are two types of cellular homeostatic injury?

A

reversible and irreversible

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17
Q

define a reversible injury.

A

short lived or mold injury

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18
Q

what is an example of an irreversible injury?

A

high blood pressure; cells become hypertrophied to work harder –> heart attack

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19
Q

true or false. you will develop a pathology when cellular injury leads to reversible cellular injury.

A

false. (irreversible cellular injury)

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20
Q

what are the two types of cellular injury?

A

necrosis and apoptosis

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21
Q

what will happen to the body before cell death?

A

loss of function

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22
Q

define phenotype.

A

observable characteristics or traits

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23
Q

if you change a cell’s phenotype, it will affect what two things?

A

appearance and function

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24
Q

what is the term for observable characteristic or traits?

A

phenotype

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25
Q

define hypertrophy.

A

an increase in cell size, but no new cell

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26
Q

hypertrophy occurs in what type of cells?

A

cells that cannot replicate

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27
Q

hypertrophy is a result of what two factors?

A
  1. overloading 2. increase in growth factors (e.g. hormones)
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28
Q

what is an example of physiologic hypertrophy?

A

lifting weights, pregnant uterus

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29
Q

what is an example of pathologic hypertrophy?

A

congestive heart failure

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30
Q

what is the term for an increase in cell size?

A

hypertrophy

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31
Q

Rhinophyma is a form of what pathology?

A

Rosacea

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32
Q

Rhinophyma is the hypertrophy of what glands?

A

sebaceous

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33
Q

true or false. Rhinophyma is not idiopathic.

A

false. it is idiopathic

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34
Q

what are some types of stressors of hypertrophy?

A

hypertension and valvular stenosis

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35
Q

what are some types of injury of hypertrophy?

A

swelling and steatosis

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36
Q

true or false. 2/3 of heart attacks are lethal.

A

false. 1/3

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37
Q

what is an example when a normal monocyte undergoes adaptation in response to increased load?

A

ventricular hypertrophy

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38
Q

what is an example when a reversibly injured monocyte undergoes cell death?

A

myocardial infarction

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39
Q

define hyperplasia.

A

an increase in number of cells

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40
Q

in what type of cells does hyperplasia occur?

A

cells that must be able to divide

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41
Q

hyperplasia is a result of what three factors?

A

compensatory factors. gene activation, HPV infection (wart)

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42
Q

what is an example of physiologic hyperplasia?

A

female breast tissue during breast feeding

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43
Q

what is an example of pathological hyperplasia?

A

HPV–> wart or can induce cancer

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44
Q

what is the difference between hyperplasia and cancer?

A

hyperplasia is controlled while cancer is uncontrolled

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45
Q

true or false. hyperplasia will accompany hypertrophy.

A

true. (may accompany)

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46
Q

what is the term to describe and increase in the number of cells?

A

hyperplasia

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47
Q

define atrophy.

A

reduced size in cells

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48
Q

what are two factors that define atrophy?

A
  1. reduced protein synthesis 2. increased rate of protein breakdown
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49
Q

true or false. since the cells are reduced in atrophy, this means that are dead as well.

A

false

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50
Q

atrophy is the result of what 5 factors?

A
  1. denervation (compression) 2. disease 3. ischemia (decreased blood supply) 4. endocrine disruption 5. aging
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51
Q

what is the term to describe a reduced size of cells?

A

atrophy

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52
Q

define senile atrophy.

A

subcutaneous fat and skin tissue atrophy

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53
Q

what accelerates senile atrophy?

A

UV light

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54
Q

what are some possible causes of cerebral atrophy?

A

atherosclerosis, malnutrition, alzheimer disease, huntington disease

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55
Q

cerebral atrophy is a risk for pathology?

A

intracranial hemorrhage

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56
Q

denervation atrophy of the thenar musculature is a symptom of what pathology?

A

carpal tunnel

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57
Q

define metaplasia.

A

reversible replacement of 1 mature cell type by another

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58
Q

metaplasia is the response to what type of prolonged stressor?

A

chronic stress (inflammation) (e.g. smoking, GERD)

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59
Q

what are the consequences of metaplasia?

A

cancerous transformation; altered structure (decrease in function)

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60
Q

what type of cellular adaptation can transform into cancer?

A

metaplasia

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61
Q

true or false. cellular injury can lead to cell death.

A

true

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62
Q

cellular injury occurs once stressors do what three things?

A
  1. exceed a cell’s ability to adapt 2. directly induce abnormalities 3. intrinsic abnormalities (DNA damage)
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63
Q

what are some various causes of cell injury/death?

A

mutations, trauma- physical, thermal, ionizing radiation, ischemia, poisons/toxins, autoimmune infection

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64
Q

true or false. cellular injury can only be reversible.

A

false. irreversible and reversible

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65
Q

in reversible injury, the cell function will increase or decrease with duration of the injury?

A

decrease

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66
Q

what type of cellular injury is from short lived or mild stress?

A

reversible

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67
Q

what are some features of reversible cellular injury?

A

steatosis (fatty change), cellular swelling

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68
Q

in reversible injuries, is there damage to the membrane?

A

no

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69
Q

in reversible injuries, is there damage to the nucleus?

A

no

70
Q

what type of cellular injury is from long term or severe stress?

A

irreversible

71
Q

in irreversible injury, is there damage to the membranes?

A

yes

72
Q

what three membranes will be affected in irreversible injury?

A

lipid bilayer, mitochondria, lysosomal

73
Q

what are the two types of irreversible injury?

A

necrosis and apoptosis

74
Q

true or false. necrosis is always pathological.

A

true

75
Q

what are some causes of necrosis?

A

toxins, ischemia, trauma

76
Q

is necrosis inflammatory?

A

yes

77
Q

true or false. apoptosis will always be physiological.

A

false. pathological or physiological

78
Q

what are some causes of apoptosis?

A

decreased in growth factors, DNA damage, viral infection

79
Q

is apoptosis inflammatory?

A

no

80
Q

is the cell membrane intact during necrosis? apoptosis?

A

no; yes

81
Q

what is karyolysis necrosis?

A

nuclear fading

82
Q

what is pyknosis necrosis?

A

nuclear shrinkage

83
Q

what is karyorrhexis necrosis?

A

nuclear fragmentation

84
Q

karyolysis, karyorrhexis, pyknosis will lead to nuclear dissolution which will eventually lead to _______?

A

anuclear necrotic cell

85
Q

what are the 5 morphologic patters of necrosis?

A
  1. coagulative 2. liquefactive 3. caseous 4. fat necrosis 5. fibrinoid
86
Q

what is another name for coagulative necrosis?

A

ischemic necrosis

87
Q

in coagulative necrosis, what process will eventually lead to tissue death?

A

vascular occlusion (ischemia)

88
Q

name the location of coagulative/ischemic necrosis. (give example)

A

solid organ (infarction); kidneys and heart

89
Q

what are two features of coagulative necrosis?

A
  1. feel solid to the touch for weeks/days 2. denatures proteolytic enzymes
90
Q

what is an example of coagulative necrosis?

A

peripheral vascular disease (PVD) from diabetes

91
Q

what is a type of coagulative necrosis?

A

gangrenous necrosis

92
Q

what is the location gangrenous necrosis?

A

extremities

93
Q

what are some causes of gangrenous necrosis?

A

PVD (diabetes), atherosclerosis (plaques), frost bite

94
Q

what are the 3 types of gangrenous necrosis?

A

dry, wet, gas

95
Q

what type of gangrenous necrosis is due to deep infection?

A

gas gangrene

96
Q

what is the definition of wet gangrene?

A

infection superimposed on a site of gangrene

97
Q

define liquefactive necrosis.

A

dead cells are completely digested by WBCs into a liquid viscous mass

98
Q

what are 2 causes of liquefactive necrosis?

A
  1. stroke (CNS dies) 2. infection (bacterial and fungal)
99
Q

between bacterial and fungal infections, what is the most common cause of liquefactive necrosis?

A

bacterial

100
Q

define caseous necrosis.

A

dead tissue with a “cheese-like” appearance

101
Q

caseous necrosis is typical of pathology?

A

tuberculosis

102
Q

what is a granuloma?

A

walled off collection of macrophages

103
Q

what is another name for fat necrosis?

A

ezymatic necrosis

104
Q

what is fat necrosis due to?

A

lipase ezymes

105
Q

what are the location for fat necrosis?

A

pancreas and breast tissue (peritoneum)

106
Q

what is a cause of fat necrosis?

A

pancreatitis

107
Q

what is pancreatitis due to?

A

alcoholism and abdominal trauma

108
Q

what type of appearance will fat necrosis show?

A

chalky white

109
Q

what type of necrosis requires a microscope/histological evaluation?

A

fibrinoid necrosis

110
Q

what type of reactions will result in fibrinoid necrosis?

A

autoimmune diseases

111
Q

what pathology will result in fibrinoid necrosis?

A

vasculitis

112
Q

what is vasculitis caused by?

A

autoimmune conditions that are destroying blood vessel walls e.g. Lupus

113
Q

what term describes programmed cell death?

A

apoptosis

114
Q

what are examples of physiologic apoptosis?

A

embryogenesis, endometrium, immune cells

115
Q

what are examples of pathologic apoptosis?

A

genetic damage, virally infected cells (HIV)

116
Q

apoptosis is autophagy as ______ is to _____.

A

apoptotic bodies; autophagic vacules

117
Q

what needs to be activated for apoptosis mechanisms?

A

caspases

118
Q

what are the 2 types of apoptosis mechanisms?

A

mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway and death receptor (extrinsic) pathway

119
Q

what apoptotic mechanism is the most common?

A

mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway

120
Q

what caspase will be found in mitochondrial pathway? death receptor pathway?

A

9;8

121
Q

what apoptotic mechanism deals with autoimmunity?

A

death receptor pathway

122
Q

define autophagy.

A

self-eating; sequesters internal organelles

123
Q

what is a survival mechanism during nutrient deprivation?

A

autophagy

124
Q

prolonged autophagy will lead to _____?

A

apoptosis

125
Q

is apoptosis or autophagy associated with Alzheimer’s?

A

autophagy

126
Q

during mitochondrial dysfunction, mitochondrial damage will lead to an increase in_____ and decrease in_____.

A

oxidation stress, ATP

127
Q

during calcium homeostasis, activatin of multiple cellular enzymes will induce _____?

A

apoptosis

128
Q

membrane abnormalities will lead to what cell injury?

A

necrosis

129
Q

DNA damages or misfolded proteins will activate what cell injury?

A

apoptosis

130
Q

what are the three types of cellular injury?

A

ischemia and hypoxia; ischemia reperfusion, chemical

131
Q

ischemia is the decrease in ______ and hypoxia is the decrease in ______.

A

blood flow; oxygen

132
Q

what will cause ischemia/hypoxia?

A

acute cell injury

133
Q

true or false. ischemia and hypoxia will not alter metabolism.

A

false. it will alter

134
Q

what is the outcome of aerobic cellular injury? anaerobic cellular injury?

A

decrease in oxygen and ATP; shut down glycolysis because of reduced substrates

135
Q

define ischemia-reperfusion injury.

A

increase in WBC will released ROS and will cause injury to cells

136
Q

what are two types of ischemia-reperfusion injury?

A

myocardial infarction and cerebral infart

137
Q

what are the two types of chemical injury?

A

direct and indirect injury

138
Q

define a direct chemical injury.

A

toxic exposure binds directly to cell and is harmful; usually cells that absorb or store; DO NOT require conversion

139
Q

define indirect chemical injury.

A

require conversion; usually in liver

140
Q

what are the four types of intracellular accumulations?

A

abnormal metabolism, defective protein folding or transport, defective or absent enzymes, ingestion of indigestible material

141
Q

what is the prime example of abnormal metabolism of intracellular accumulation?

A

fatty liver disease

142
Q

what type of intracellular accumulation is a result of genetic mutation?

A

defective protein folding or transport

143
Q

what type of intracellular accumulation is an inherited mutation?

A

defective or absent enzyme

144
Q

what are some examples of indigestible material?

A

coal, silica, asbestos (mesothelioma)

145
Q

what hepatomegaly a result of?

A

steatosis (fatty liver)

146
Q

what are 4 location of steatosis?

A

cardiac muscles, skeletal muscles, liver, kidneys

147
Q

nonalcoholic fatty liver disease could be due to what three things?

A

diabetes, obesity, increase in cholesterol

148
Q

what are the microscopic findings of steatosis?

A

fat blebs

149
Q

what percentage of heavy drinkers will develop steatosis?

A

90-100%

150
Q

what percentage of heavy drinkers will develop hepatitis?

A

10-35%

151
Q

what percentage of heavy drinkers will develop cirrhosis?

A

8-20%

152
Q

true or false. 1/5 of heavy drinkers will develop cirrhosis.

A

true

153
Q

what are the two possible symptoms of alcoholic liver disease?

A

ascites and caput medusae

154
Q

what pathology is associated with fluid filled/excess accumulation in peritoneal lining in the abdominal region?

A

ascites (alcoholic liver disease)

155
Q

define caput medusae.

A

long term damage to liver; engorged superficial epigastric veins; late stage of liver damage

156
Q

freckles are the intracellular accumulation of _____.

A

melanin; UVB exposure

157
Q

what is the term associated with the bleeding condition of intracellular accumulation?

A

hemosidenin

158
Q

define lipofuscin intracellular accumulation.

A

wear and tear of pigments in older cells

159
Q

what are the two types of pathologic calcification?

A

dystrophic and metastatic

160
Q

where does dystrophic calcification occur?

A

damaged tissue

161
Q

what are three types of dystrophic calcification?

A

atherosclerosis, aortic stenosis, myositis ossificans

162
Q

where does metastatic calcification occur?

A

in normal tissues

163
Q

what is metastatic calcification due to?

A

hypercalcemia in blood

164
Q

where are common sites for metastatic calcification?

A

vessel walls, kidneys, lungs, GI tract

165
Q

what are some causes of metastatic hypercalcemia?

A

bone cancer, leukemia, hypervitaminosis, renal failure

166
Q

what are three factors that affect cellular aging?

A

DNA damage, replicative senescence, defective protein homeostasis

167
Q

true or false. DNA damage is due to oxidative stress during cellular aging.

A

true

168
Q

define replicative senescence as it pertains to cellular aging.

A

decreased cells ability to divide; shortened telomeres

169
Q

during cellular aging, what factor is a signal for apoptosis?

A

defective protein homeostasis

170
Q

during cellular aging, what is the enzyme that builds the ends of chromosomes?

A

telomerase

171
Q

what is Progeroid Syndromes?

A

increased rate of cellular aging

172
Q

true or false. telomere shortening will prevent the re-enter into cell cycle.

A

true

General Pathology (2 decks)

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