Chapter 1

Question 1

Behaviorism

Answer 1

Focuses on observable changes in behavior.
Behavior is the result of a person’s response to stimuli(good or bad) (Responses that are reinforced increase, not reinforced they decrease).
Stimuli can be adapted to strengthen or reduce a person’s behavior.
Programmed learning or instruction(flash cards, scripted lesson
Instruction is broken down into small, successive steps

Question 2

Cognitivism

Answer 2

a philosophy of learning that describes the activities of an organism in terms of observable actions or behaviors and internal or mental states. (people are active participants instead of passive recipients)

Question 3

Constructivism: Schema Theory

Answer 3

Reading is a process in which readers actively search for meaning in what they read.
Depends on reader’s background (or prior) knowledge (schemata).
Readers construct meaning based on this background knowledge.

Question 4

Assimilation

Answer 4

child interprets the world in terms of his or her schemes(incorporating new ideas into existing ones)

Question 5

Accomodation

Answer 5

the process in which concepts or schemes are modified or new ones created to accommodate new knowledge.

Question 6

Social Constructivism

Answer 6

Individuals learn as a result of social interactions with others.
Development depends on a culture’s language, writing, and counting systems.
Zone of proximal development: the level at which a child can be successful with appropriate support.
describes learning as an active process. (Implementing literature circles or book clubs in the classroom.)

Question 7

Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD)

Answer 7

the difference between independent performance and potential performance as determined through problem solving under the guidance of an adult or more capable peer. (difference b/w a measure of what the child has learned up to that point and a measure of what the child might be capable of achieving)

Question 8

Scaffolding

Answer 8

support and guidance provided by an adult or more capable peer that helps that student function at a higher level.

Question 9

Cognitive behavioral modification

Answer 9

our behavior is affected by the set of rewards and punishments we have experienced in the past and by our beliefs, thoughts, and expectations.

Question 10

Bottom-up approach

Answer 10

Children start at the bottom and work their way up. processing in which meaning is derived from the accurate, sequential processing of words. Emphasis is on the text rather than the readers background knowledge or language ability.

Question 11

Top-down approach

Answer 11

Starts at the top and works downward; holistic and progression happens through immersion. deriving meaning by using ones background knowledge, language ability, and expectations. Emphasis is on the reader rather than the text.

Question 12

Interactionist

Answer 12

teach skills directly and systematically-especially in the beginning. believe reading involves processing text and using one’s background knowledge and language ability.

Question 13

Transaction

Answer 13

relationship between the reader and the text in which meaning is created as the text is conditioned by the reader and the reader is conditioned by the text.

Question 14

stance

Answer 14

attitude that the reader takes. 2 stances: aesthetic and efferent.

Question 15

Efferent (stance) reading

Answer 15

refers to a kind of reading in which the focus is on obtaining or carrying away information from the reading. (Science text book) is for the practical purpose of gaining knowledge from a text.

Question 16

Aesthetic (stance) reading

Answer 16

refers to a type of reading in which the reader focuses on experiencing the piece: the rhythm of the words, the past experiences the words call up.(feelings, attitudes, and ideas the words evoke) involves being aware of the sound and feeling of a text, as well as identifying with the characters and participating in the story world—virtually experiencing the story.

Question 17

Effect size

Answer 17

the power of the element being tested to improve achievement or other outcome. it’s the degree to which the experimental group did better than a matched group of students.

Question 18

Standard deviation

Answer 18

is a measure of variance or dispersion there is from the average.

Question 19

percentile rank

Answer 19

the point on a scale of 1-99 that shows what percentage of students obtained on equal or lower score. percentile rank of 75 means that 75% of those who took the test received an equal or lower score.

Question 20

Reading

Answer 20

is a process in which we construct meaning from print.

Question 21

Phonology

Answer 21

speech sounds known as phonemes. consists of producing and understanding speech sounds

Question 22

morphology

Answer 22

word formation. meaningful word parts such as roots and affixes.

Question 23

syntax

Answer 23

sentence formation. the way in which words are arranged in a sentence.

Question 24

semantics

Answer 24

word and sentence meaning.

Question 25

prosody

Answer 25

intonation and rhythm of speech: pitch, stress, juncture.

Question 26

Pragmatics

Answer 26

engaging in effective communication

Question 27

English language learners(ELL’s)

Answer 27

students not born in the US or whose native language is not english and who cannot participate effectively in the regular curriculum b/c they have difficulty speaking, understanding, reading, and writing in English-speaking classrooms.

Question 28

Schema

Answer 28

Knowledge is packaged in organized structures called schemata.
Constitutes our knowledge about ‘objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions’ (Rumelhart, 1980)
Interpret our experiences by comparing and matching our experiences to existing schemata.
Our schemata are related to each other
house > neighborhood > family > teepee

Question 29

Prior Knowledge Activities

Answer 29

Giving personal examples 
Creating new examples  
Drawing pictures 
Giving demonstrations 
Making comparisons  
Drawing inferences 
Making predictions 
Reflecting on Ideas 
Solving Problems 
Creating stories, plays, and essays 
(Ryder & Graves, 1988)

Question 30

Constructivism: reader-response theory

Answer 30

Meaning is created in the transaction that occurs between the text and the reader
Readers read for two purposes:
Efferent reading is for the practical purpose of gaining knowledge from a text.
Aesthetic reading involves being aware of the sound and feeling of a text, as well as identifying with the characters and participating in the story world—virtually experiencing the story.
Efferent and aesthetic reading lie at either end of a continuum, with most reading comprising a mixture of the two. A reader’s purpose determines that stance a reader takes, and is influenced by the features of the text.

Question 31

Psycholinguistic theory

Answer 31

The study of links between psychology and language.
Belief that reading is primarily a language process.
Readers rely on language cueing systems to help them rapidly read text.
Readers use their knowledge about language, and the world in general, to drive their thinking as they engage in the reading process.

Question 32

Social learning theory

Answer 32

Combines features of behaviorism with social learning.
Behaviorism did not take into account vicarious learning (people learning from observing others)
People learn from observing others or “models”—their successes, failures, efforts, and styles.

Question 33

Balanced Literacy Instruction

Answer 33

Teacher conducts a mini-lesson on the spot when a student does not understand something. (student trying to spell boat, teacher gives min-lesson on the oa spelling of long o)