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Intro to Psych > Chapter 1-3 6 and 10 > Flashcards

Chapter 1-3 6 and 10 Flashcards

Critical Thinking and Research Methods The Brain Neurons and Neurotransmitters Classical and Operant Conditioning Incentives and motivation

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1
Q

Motivation

A

Anything that energizes, directs, or sustains behavior

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2
Q

Describe the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

A

Extrinsic motivation are directives toward an external goal
Intrinsic motivation are drives toward an internal value or pleasure

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3
Q

Describe the difference between ratio and interval in reinforcement schedules

A
  • ratio is based on a number # of responses
  • interval is based on specific unit of time
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4
Q

Needs

A

Basic biological needs create drives

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5
Q

Describe the difference between fixed and variable

A

Fixed— reinforcer given consistently at a constant rate
Variable— reinforcer provided at different rates or times

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6
Q

Explain thermoregulation

A

Mammals must maintain constant body temperature for survival, how we sustain homeostasis
Physiological responses Hot= sweat, cold= shiver
Psych= hot- drink water, cold- put on a sweater

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7
Q

Fixed interval

A

Feedback after a certain period of Time (paycheck every 2 weeks)

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8
Q

Variable interval

A

Feedback at a random amount of time within a period of time (Drug testing at the Olympics)

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9
Q

Incentives

A

Motivate complex behaviors beyond basic internal drives

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10
Q

Fixed ratio

A

Feedback after a fixed number of responses or actions, and rate of reinforcement is unchanged

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11
Q

Variable ratio

A

Feedback after some random/averag number of responses. (Winning the lottery between 1-100 tries, yet unknown when)

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12
Q

Describe Observational learning

A

Imitation and cultural learning— we learn through replicating behaviors from what we observe in the media or culture

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13
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

Psychological principle that although challenging tasks increases arousal/incentives moderately, more arousal/incentives can impair performance.

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14
Q

Describe learning

A

Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience. It is based on associating events in time.

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15
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Is associating a predictive cue or new event with an automatic reflex.

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16
Q

Self-regulation

A

Allows adjustment of behavior to improve outcomes

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17
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Non- associated cue with any response initially, before any conditioning occurs

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18
Q

Describe how timing matters in classical conditioning

A

Because CS should be predictive of the US, there can not be a prolonged delay in the CS and US.

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19
Q

Extinction

A

When a learned reaction (CR) extinguished because the CS no longer predicts the US

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20
Q

Acquisition

A

Pairing between CS and US, through one or may trials

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20
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

When the extinguished CR reemerges when CS is presented once again

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21
Q

***Describe the Rescorla Wagner model of classical conditioning

A

Rescorla Wagner states that animals learn to expect that some controlled stimuli (CS) are better predictors of the (US) than others. Whether the conditioned association is acquired, extinguished, or maintains is determined by which a US is expected or surprising

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22
Q

What other real world factors does classical conditioning effect

A
  • Conditioned Taste Aversion– one trial, one thing makes you sick, conditioned to not eat it
  • Phobias
  • Addiction– sensory or envriontmental cues can increase drug cravings
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23
Q

reward Prediction Error

A

a difference between expected outcome and actual one, strengthening or weakening the CS US association

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24
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

learn to associate stimulus similar but not identical to CS that signals US [dog getting a reward even though it heard a freq similar, not same to the CS]

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25
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

learn to associate similar stimuli that do not signal the US [dog NOT getting a reward even though it heard a freq similar, not same to the CS]

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26
Q

High order conditioning

A

AKA second-order conditioning, occurs when a new conditioned stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus, which has already been associated with a CS. After subsequent trials, the second-order stimulus produces the CR without the need for the original CS.

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27
Q

Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning

A

Classical conidtioning is a learned association between a predictive cue and an automatic reflex, however it is limited in that it produces reflexive, not goal-directed behaviors. Operant conditioning produces these goal directed behaviors through teaching certain actions that produce certain consequences.

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28
Q

Law of effect

A

any behavior that leads to a satisfying state of affairs is likely to occur again

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29
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine
the likelihood that it will be performed in the future

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30
Q

Reinforcer

A

stimulus that increases response likelihood

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31
Q

Punishment

A

stimulus that decreases likelihood that response will be repeated

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32
Q

Positive reinforcer

A

increasing probability of repeated response through the addition of a pleasant stimulus or reward

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33
Q

Negative reinforcer

A

increasing probability of repeated response through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

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34
Q

Positive punishment

A

decreasing the probability of a repeated response through the addition of an unpleasant stimulus

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35
Q

Negative punishment

A

decreasing the probability of a repeated response through the removal of a pleasant stimulus

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36
Q

Discuss the operant chamber

A

AKA skinner box, an animal, usually a rat, is placed in the box where it must learn to activate levers or respond to light or sound stimuli for reward.

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37
Q

Define Shaping

A

shaping is reinforcing behaviors that become increasingly similar to the desired behavior

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38
Q

Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers

A

primary stimuli necessary for survival (food or sex)
secondary stimuli don’t satisfy a biological need, but can also signal the primary stimuli (compliments, clicker)

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38
Q

Distinguish between the two basic divisions of the nervous system

A

Central nervous system (CNS)– brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)– somatic and autonomic nerv. system

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38
Q

Describe the function of the nervous system

A

coordinates information from the environment to the body using the basic unit, neurons

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39
Q

Identify the positional order of neuronal cell structures

A

Dendrite, cell body, axon, terminal buttons, and synapse

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40
Q

Synapse

A

where chemical communication between neurons occur

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41
Q

terminal buttons

A

release chemical signals from neuron to synpase

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42
Q

axon

A

where info from outgoing signals is transmitted to terminal buttons

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43
Q

cell body

A

where info is collecteed and integrated

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44
Q

dendrites

A

receive info from other neurons

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45
Q

What are the two basic receiving components of neurons

A

dendrites and cell body

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46
Q

What are the two basic sending components of neurons

A

axon and terminal buttons

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47
Q

How do neurons communicate

A

Neural signaling is electrical and chemical

  • Electrical ions
  • Neurotransmitters= chemical
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48
Q

Ion channel

A

manipulates neural potential

49
Q

Resting potential

A

cell is permeable to potassium ions, not sodium ions, or potassium is inside and sodium is outside

50
Q

What triggers the synapse?

A

an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make it more or less likely to fire an action potential.

51
Q

Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)

A

depolarization happens and sodium rushes into the cell from outside the cell, positively charging it

52
Q

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)

A

hyper-polarization occurs where sodium leaves the cell, and the neuron becomes negatively charged

53
Q

significance of IPSP and EPSP

A

affect the probability that the postsynaptic cell will generate action potential

54
Q

action potential

A

triggered by depolarization occurring above a certain threshold. these are large and fast.

55
Q

All or none principle

A

The size of the response stays consistent, there won’t be any significantly stronger AP or weaker

56
Q

Chemical release of neurotransmitter happens in the …

A

synapse

57
Q

Lock and key model

A

every neurotransmitter binds with a specific receptor

58
Q

name two common neurotransmitters

A

Glutamate (excitatory) and GABA (inhibatory)

59
Q

Describe the difference between agonist and antagonist

A

Ag: drugs and toxins that enhance neurotransmitters
Ant: drugs and toxins that black neurotransmitter effect (

60
Q

Three ways that neurotransmitter release is regulates

A

reuptake, enzyme deactivation, and autoreceptors

61
Q

What is in the hindbrain

A

brain stem and cerebellum

62
Q

What is in the subcortical structures of the brain

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system (hippocampus and amygdala), basal ganglia

63
Q

what is in the cerebral cortex

A

Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe

64
Q

What is the brain stem responsible for

A

basic survival; heart rate, breathing, blood pressure

65
Q

What is the cerebellum responsible for

A

motor coordination, balance, motor learning

66
Q

Pons damage

A

damage to the brainstem in which patient cannot voluntary control muscles

67
Q

What is the hypothalamus responsible for

A

Motivation and regulation of drives, thermoregulation sex orient. (Interacts with endocrine system)

68
Q

What is the thalamus responsible for

A

relay station for motor and sensory info and regulates conscious alertness

69
Q

What is the hippocampus responsible for

A

Long term memory

70
Q

What is the amygdala responsible for

A

emotional learning, spec. fear

71
Q

What is the basal ganglia responsible for

A

motor control, reward & motivation (dopamine +reinforcement learning]

72
Q

What is the specialization of the brain’s left hemisphere

A

language

73
Q

What is the specialization of the brain’s right hemisphere

A

spatial, visual, motor awareness

74
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

bridge between two hemispheres of the brain

75
Q

Two ways of conceptualizing the organization of brain functions

A

Distributed: entire brain contributes equally to function
Localized: certain areas create specialized function

76
Q

Brocas Area

A

neurological substrate for language, or region of the brain responsible for language production (not comprehensive abilities)

77
Q

Significance to Phineas Gage damage

A

His behavior after the tamping iron was blown through his skull linked the frontal lobe to personality and decision making

78
Q

causal interference

A

ability to give insight into cause and effect

79
Q

descriptive research

A

observation without relating or manipulating variables, low causal interference

80
Q

correlational research

A

examines natural relationship between variables

81
Q

Why and when is correlational research used

A

used when not ethical or possible to perform an experimental manipulation, AKA trauma or war/combat

82
Q

limits of descriptive research

A

observer bias and reactivity (knowing you are watched changes your behavior)

83
Q

limits of correlational research

A

directionality (does b cause a or vice versa), Third variable (non-confidence that an unobserved outside variable hasn’t influenced existing variables)

84
Q

Experimental research

A

highest causal interference; manipulate variable

85
Q

case study

A

examination of a small number of unusual people

86
Q

sample

A

subset of the population

87
Q

selection bias in statistics and population value data

A

When a “random” sample isn’t really random

88
Q

Convenience sampling

A

rather than taking a random sample of the wider population, take an available sub group, like college students

89
Q

How do psychologists guard against group confounds?

A

random assignment: guard against systematic differences between groups

90
Q

What is the goal for statistical measuring in psychology

A

for results to be reliable and valid

91
Q

Describe descriptive statistics

A

Stats measuring the central tendency and variability of data. Central tendency is teh value which data is clustered, including taking the mean, mode, median of data. Variability is the spread of values around a cluster, which is measured by standard deviation

92
Q

inferential stats

A

generalizing from sample results to the population

93
Q

three major principles of the scientific method

A

testable hypothesis, structured empirical observation, replication to verify.

94
Q

Where is the primary motor cortex

A

Frontal lobe

95
Q

Functions of frontal lobe

A

Motor execution and planning

96
Q

Functions of parietal lobe

A

Attention

97
Q

Functions of Occipital lobe

A

Early visual processing

98
Q

Functions of temporal lobe

A

Auditory and high level vision

99
Q

Sensorimotor homnoculos

A

AKA cortical mapping: This mapping of our sense of touch onto the cortex gives us a representation of the body

100
Q

Neural plasticity

A

Plasticity is the brain’s
capacity to continually change in response to a person’s environment. Following an injury in the cortex, the surrounding gray matter may assume the function of the damaged area,

Phantom limb syndrome- if hand is missing, the next region of the body expands to accommodate.

101
Q

Cortical mapping significance

A

Neural mapping location represents the same organization seen on your body

102
Q

meditation

A

when a person focuses attention on an external object, internal event, or sense of awareness to create an altered consciousness.

103
Q

How does meditation affect cognitive processing, brain function, and the immunse system

A

greater stress reduction, more improvement in attention, and greater brain electrical activity

104
Q

Suppose a person meditating focuses on thoughts of waves rolling onto
a beautiful beach. Is the person practicing concentrative meditation or
mindfulness meditation?

A

concentrative: the person is focusing on a specific image

105
Q

concentrative vs mindfulness

A

concentrative= focus on one thing (breathing or mental image)
mindfulness- thoughts flow freely, paying attention but not reacting to them

106
Q

Does showing that long-term meditators have less age-related change in
brain structure through cross-sectional studies prove meditation reduces neural aging and decline?

A

No. Correlation does not equal causation. Those who practice
meditation may also have other lifestyle differences that affect brain aging. Use longitudinal studies to prove

107
Q

What is flow in psychology

A

an optimal state of being deeeply immersed in a completely satisfying experience, and happens automatically. Characterized by losing track of time, forgetting about problems, etc…

108
Q

How can flow potentially be negative

A

Potential flow activities such as sports or music may help
people escape thinking about their problems. Escapism; when people
choose to escape the self solely to avoid engaging with life:

109
Q

Hypnosis

A

is a social interaction where a person experiences changes in memory, perception and/or voluntary action

110
Q

posthypnotic suggestions

A

when the hypnotist suggests that the listener will experience a change in memory or behavior after a session, psychological evidence tells that they can subtly influence behavior.

111
Q

sociocognitive theory of
hypnosis

A

hypnotized people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave,
even if those expectations are faulty

112
Q

neodissociation theory of hypnosis

A

views the hypnotic state as an
altered, trance like state in which conscious awareness is separated, or dissociated, from other aspects of consciousness

113
Q

Can everyone be hypnotized?

A

Hypnotic suggestibility varies between individuals and is related to personal qualities such as being focused, imaginative, easily absorbed, and willing to participate.

114
Q

psychoactive drugs

A

s cause changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior. These drugs
change the brain’s neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems: either by imitating it or changing the activity of it

115
Q

stimulants

A

are drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity. They stimulate, or
heighten, activity of the central nervous system, interfering with the normal reuptake of dopamine. Improve mood but disrupt sleep

116
Q

depressants

A

reduce behavioral and mental activity by
depressing the central nervous system. ex: alcohol

117
Q

opoids

A

mimic the action of the neurotransmitter endorphins that help relieve pain ex: narcotics

118
Q

hallucinogens

A

s change how users experience the world around them, including distorting time. Ex; lsd

119
Q

amphetamine vs methamphetamines’

A

amphetamine increase dopamine in the synapse, reducing fatigue and producing wakefulness. methamphetamines break down into amphetamine

120
Q

marijuana can be characterized as a

A

stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen

121
Q

What type of drug is in Adderall, used to treat ADHD?

A

an amphetamine (a stimulant)

122
Q

alcohol

A

the second-most commonly used psychoactive drug throughout the
world after caffeine, is a depressant that inhibits neural activity by activating
GABA receptors.

123
Q

women do not…. alcohol as quickly as … do, thus can be an explanation of why … are more likely to become …

A

metabolize; men; men; binge drinkers

124
Q
A

Intro to Psych (4 decks)

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