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Kin 101 - Physiology > Chapter 1, 2, 3,4 > Flashcards

Chapter 1, 2, 3,4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Definition of physiology

A

Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its components parts, including all its chemical and physical processes

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2
Q

What does the term physiology literally mean

A

“knowledge of nature”

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3
Q

List the levels of organization

A

Atoms –> Molecules –> Cells –> Tissues—> Organs –> Organ Systems–> Organisms–> Population of one species–> Ecosystem of different species–> biosphere

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4
Q

Define emergent properties

A

properties that “emerge” but can’t be predicted based on the parts

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5
Q

What is negative feedback?

A
  • The response counteracts the stimulus, shutting off the response loop.
  • Too much A, too much B, too much C, too much D, too much D tells A to stop
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6
Q

What is positive feedback?

A
  • The response reinforces the stimulus, sending the variable farther from the set point.
  • There is lots of something and the body wants more
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7
Q

What is teleological?

A

why

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8
Q

What is mechanistic?

A

how

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9
Q

What does the circulatory system include?

A

Heart, blood vessels, blood

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10
Q

Function of the circulatory system?

A

Transport of materials between all cells of the body

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11
Q

What does the digestive system include?

A

Stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas

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12
Q

Function of the digestive system?

A

Conversion of food into particles that can be transported into the body; elimination of some wastes

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13
Q

What does the endocrine system include?

A

Thyroid gland, adrenal gland

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14
Q

Function of the endocrine system

A

Coordination of body function through synthesis and release of regulatory molecules

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15
Q

What does the immune system include?

A

Thymus, spleen, lymph nodes

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16
Q

Function of the immune system

A

Defence against foreign invaders

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17
Q

What does the integumentary include?

A

Skin

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18
Q

Function of the integumentary system

A

Protection from external environment

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19
Q

What does the musculoskeletal system include?

A

Skeletal muscles, bones

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20
Q

Function of the musculoskeletal system

A

Support and movement

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21
Q

What does the nervous system include?

A

Brain, spinal cord

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22
Q

Function of the nervous system

A

Coordination of body function through electrical signals and release of regulatory molecules

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23
Q

What does the reproductive system include?

A

Ovaries, and uterus, testes

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24
Q

Function of the reproductive system

A

Perpetuation of the species

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25
Q

What does the respiratory system include?

A

Lungs, airways

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26
Q

Function of the respiratory system?

A

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the internal and external environments

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27
Q

What does the urinary system include?

A

Kidneys, bladder

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28
Q

Function of the urinary system

A

maintenance of water and solutes in the internal environment; waste removal

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29
Q

Define molecular interactions

A

A molecule’s function depends on it’s structure and shape

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30
Q

Define compartmentation

A

Division of space into compartments. Allows a cell, tissue or organ to specialize and isolate functions

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31
Q

Themes in physiology

A
  • Structure and function are closely related
  • Living organisms need energy
  • Information flow coordinates body functions
  • Homeostasis maintains internal stability
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32
Q

What is homeostasis?

A
  • Normal range for body –> stability in a range
  • Not the same as equilibrium
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33
Q

What agents can cause a disruption to homeostasis?

A

Internal or external agents

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34
Q

What do these agents do to the body?

A

change the bodies internal temperature that the body attempts to compensate

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35
Q

What does the failure of homeostasis result in?

A

May result in a disease or pathology

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36
Q

What is extracellular fluid?

A

A buffer between cells and the outside world

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37
Q

What does the cell membrane do?

A

Separates the cell from extracellular fluid

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38
Q

Define extracellular fluid

A

The watery environment that surrounds cells

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39
Q

Define intracellular fluid

A

Fluid within cells

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40
Q

Does intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid have a different composition?

A

yes

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41
Q

Define law of mass balance

A

If the amount of a substance in the body is to remain constant any gain must be offset by an equal loss
- mass balance = existing body load + intake or metabolic production - excretion or metabolic removal
- Excrete what we don’t need. Take in what we need

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42
Q

Define load

A

Amount of a substance in the body

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43
Q

Define excretion

A

Clears substances from the body (urine, faces, lungs, skin)

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44
Q

Define mass flow

A

Rate of transport through the body

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45
Q

Define clearance

A

The rate of which a substance disappears from the blood
- Not everything can disappear at once

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46
Q

Define regulated variables

A

Variables that are kept within a normal range by control mechanisms

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47
Q

How does the body stay in homeostasis

A

Input signal (Detect problem)–> Intergrating center (control centre) –> Output signal (correct problem) –> Response

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48
Q

Define local control

A

Restricted to a local tissue or cell

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49
Q

Define reflex control

A

uses long - distance signalling

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50
Q

Reflex Steps

A
  • Stimulus
  • Sensor
  • Input signal
  • Integrating center
  • Output signal
  • Target
  • Response
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51
Q

Is a negative feedback loop homeostatic?

A

Yes - the response counteracts the stimulus, shutting off the response loop

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52
Q

Is a positive feedback loop homeostatic?

A

No - The response reinforces the stimulus, sending the variable farther from the set point

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53
Q

Define variability

A

there is wide genetic and environmental variability between humans. In a crossover study each individual gets the experimental treatment and then “crosses over” to also be in the control group

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54
Q

Define cross-over study

A

In a cross-study, each individual acts as their own control, enabling researchers to see the effects of the drug in each participant, rather than between two groups, which helps deal with variability between participants

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55
Q

Define placebo effect

A

if you give someone a pill and tell them it will alleviate some problem, that beneficial effect may be observed, even the pill contains sugar or an inert substance

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56
Q

Define nocebo effect

A

If you give someone a pill and tell them it may have an adverse side effect, that side effect may be observed, even the pill contains sugar or an inert substance

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57
Q

How do you control the placebo or nocebo effect?

A

Conduct a blind study
- double blind studies are even better

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58
Q

What is an organic molecule?

A

A molecule that contain carbon

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59
Q

What are biomolecules?

A

Organic molecules in living organisms

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60
Q

What do biomolecules do?

A
  • provide structure (they do everything)
  • Store energy
  • Regulate metabolism
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61
Q

What is a carbohydrate?

A

Sugars

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62
Q

What is a lipid?

A

Fats and oil

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63
Q

What is a protein?

A

Polymers of amino acids

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64
Q

What are nucleotides?

A

DNA, RNA, and ATP

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65
Q

Function of carbohydrates?

A

Energy and building blocks

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66
Q

Function of lipids?

A

Energy and building blocks

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67
Q

Function of proteins?

A

Energy and building blocks

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68
Q

Function of nucleotides?

A

Structure for genetic material, store energy, and regulate metabolism

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69
Q

Composition of carbohydrates

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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70
Q

Composition of lipids

A

Carbon, hydrogen

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71
Q

Composition of protein

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes sulphur

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72
Q

Composition of nucleotides

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

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73
Q

True or false: Biomolecules are always purely one kind of molecule

A

false

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74
Q

What are conjugated proteins?

A

Proteins combined with another biomolecule

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75
Q

Example of conjugated proteins?

A

Lipoproteins

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76
Q

What are glycosylated molecules?

A

Molecules attached to carbohydrates

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77
Q

Examples of glycosylated molecules?

A

Glycoproteins and glycolipids

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78
Q

What are polymers?

A

biomolecules made of repeating units

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79
Q

Example of polymers?

A

Glucose polymers glycogen and starch

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80
Q

What kind of bonds share electrons

A

Covalent

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81
Q

What do protons determine?

A

The atomic number

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82
Q

What do neutrons determine?

A

The isotope

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83
Q

How do you determine atomic mass?

A

Protons + neutrons

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84
Q

What makes up an atom?

A

Protons, neutrons, and electrons

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85
Q

Define Ions

A

If an atom or molecule gains or loses one or more electrons, it acquires an electrical charge and becomes an ion. ions are the basis for electrical signalling in the body

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86
Q

Define ionic bonds

A

ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between ions

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87
Q

Define high-energy electrons

A

Electrons in certain atoms can capture energy from their environment and transfer it to other atoms

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88
Q

Define cations

A
  • lost electrons
  • Positively charged
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89
Q

Define ions

A
  • Gained electrons
  • Negatively charged
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90
Q

How are molecules formed?

A

When two or more atoms form covalent bonds

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91
Q

Define non polar molecules

A

Non polar molecules have an even distribution of electrons.
- Non polar molecules tend to be mostly composed of carbon and hydrogen

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92
Q

Define polar molecules

A

Polar molecules have regions of partial charge
- No symmetrical

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93
Q

Example of ionic bonds

A

Salt - Nacl

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94
Q

What determines whether a molecule will dissolve in water?

A

The charged, uncharged, or partially charged nature

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95
Q

What determines the molecules shape and function?

A

Covalent and non covalent bonds

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96
Q

What is a saccharide?

A

Sugar - carbohydrates

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97
Q

Examples of monosaccharides

A
  • Glucose
  • Fructose
  • Galactose
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98
Q

Examples of disaccharides

A
  • Sucrose
  • Maltose
  • Lactose
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99
Q

Examples of oligosaccharides

A
  • maltodextrin
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100
Q

Examples of polysaccharides

A
  • Amylopectin (starch)
  • Amylose (starch)
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101
Q

What makes up a sucrose?

A

Glucose + Fructose

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102
Q

What makes up a maltose?

A

Glucose + Glucose

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103
Q

What makes up a lactose?

A

Glucose + Galactose

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104
Q

Carbohydrates that are used up fast

A
  • Glucose
  • Sucrose
  • Maltose
  • Lactose
  • Maltodextrin
  • Amylopectin
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105
Q

Carbohydrates that are broken down slowly

A
  • Fructose
  • Galactose
  • Amylose
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106
Q

What type of sugars are monosaccharides?

A

Simple

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107
Q

What do you need for nucleotides?

A
  • Ribose
  • Deoxyribose
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108
Q

What do you need for glycolysis

A

Glucose

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109
Q

What is a disaccharide?

A

Glucose + another monosaccharide

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110
Q

What is a polysaccharide?

A

Polysaccharides are glucose polymers. All living cells store glucose for energy in the form of a polysaccharide

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111
Q

What type of carbohydrates are better for exercise performance?

A

Disaccharides

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112
Q

What is a glyceride?

A

A lipid

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113
Q

What is the backbone in the formation of a lipid?

A

Glycerol

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114
Q

What form are more than 90% of lipids in?

A

Triglyceride

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115
Q

How many fatty acids are in a monoglyceride?

A

one

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116
Q

How many fatty acids are in a diglyceride?

A

Two

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117
Q

How many fatty acids are in a triglyceride?

A

Three

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118
Q

What is a saturated fatty acid?

A

No double binds between carbons

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119
Q

What is a monounsaturated fatty acid?

A

One double bond between carbons

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120
Q

What is a polyunsaturated fatty acid?

A

Two or more double bonds between carbon

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121
Q

What is an eicosanoids?

A
  • 20 - carbon fatty acids with a complete or partial carbon ring and two long carbon chains “tails”
  • Acts as regulators of physiological functions: inflammation, immune response, child birth, pain perception, blood flow, cell growth…
122
Q

What are steroids?

A
  • Steroids are lipid related molecules whose structure includes four linked carbon rings.
123
Q

What is the primary source of steroids in the human body?

A

Cholesterol

124
Q

What do steroids do?

A
  • Cell membranes, signalling molecules for reproduction, metabolism, immune function, cardiovascular control, muscle and bone synthesis
125
Q

What are phospholipids?

A
  • 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group
  • Important components of animal cell membranes
  • makes a fat polar
126
Q

What is solubility?

A
  • Ability of solute to dissolve in a solvent
127
Q

Define hydrophilic

A

Soluble in water

128
Q

Examples of hydrophilic

A
  • ions
  • polar molecules
  • ionic molecules
129
Q

Define hydrophobic

A

Not soluble in water

130
Q

Examples of hydrophobic

A

Non-polar molecules (i.e. lipids “oil on water”)

131
Q

What is a hydrophilic interaction?

A

Fats round up into a ball

132
Q

Example of a hydrophilic interaction?

A

Bacon grease and water

133
Q

Define hydrophilic interactions

A

Occurs between water and ions or other polar molecules. Ions and polar molecules dissolve in water and create biological solutions.

134
Q

What is a nucleotide composed of?

A

1) One or more phosphate groups
2) 5 - carbon sugar
3) Nitrogenous base

135
Q

What role does a nucleotide have?

A

Energy and information transfer

136
Q

What is the common energy used in our bodies?

A

ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate

137
Q

Define phosphorylation

A

Addition of a phosphate group

138
Q

Define dephosphorylation

A

Removal of a phosphate group

139
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

Nucleic acids are nucleotide polymers that store and transmit genetic information

140
Q

What are the building blocks of proteins?

A

Amino acids

141
Q

What is a protein composed of?

A
  • Amino group
  • Functional group
  • Carboxylic acid
142
Q

What does a functional group do?

A

Gives amino acid its identity

143
Q

How many amino acids make a protein?

A

more than 100

144
Q

How many amino acids to make an oligopeptide?

A

2 - 9

145
Q

How many amino acids to make a polypeptide?

A

10 -100

146
Q

What is a secondary structure?

A

Is created primarily by hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains or loops

147
Q

What determines secondary structure?

A

Covalent bonds between amino acids

148
Q

What is a tertiary structure?

A

Proteins three dimensional shape

149
Q

What are tertiary structures composed of?

A

A mix of secondary structures

150
Q

What is a quaternary structure?

A

Multiple subunits combine with non covalent bonds.

151
Q

Example of quaternary structure

A

hemoglobin

152
Q

What is the importance of the shape of a protein molecule?

A
  • Its closely related to it’s function
  • Molecular bonds determine the molecular shape
153
Q

Define enzymes

A

Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions

154
Q

Define membrane transporters

A

In cell membranes help move substances back and forth between the ICF and ECF.

155
Q

Define signal molecules

A

Acts as hormones and other signal molecules

156
Q

Example of a signal molecule

A

insulin

157
Q

Define receptors

A

Proteins that bind signal molecules and initiate cellular responses

158
Q

Define binding proteins

A

Bind and transport molecules throughout the body

159
Q

Define regulatory proteins

A

Turn cell processes on and off

160
Q

Define binding sites

A

The location on a protein where a substrate can adhere. Proteins are selective about the molecules they bind

161
Q

Define specificity

A

Is the ability of a protein to bind to a certain ligand or a group of closely - related ligands

162
Q

True or False: The ligand and the protein binding site must be a perfect fit

A

False - Must just be compatible

163
Q

Define affinity

A

Strength of bond and desire to attach

164
Q

Define competition

A

Might have 2 things to attach to one site

165
Q

Define saturation

A

is full

166
Q

Define law of mass action

A

Says that when protein binding is at equilibrium, the ratio of the bound and unbound components remains constant

167
Q

Things that can change binding sites:

A
  • Cofactors
  • Allosteric activators
168
Q

Define cofactors

A

Share the binding site

169
Q

Define allosteric activators

A

Modulate from afar: Might attach to other side of protein and change bonding site.

170
Q

Define chemical modulators

A

Bind reversibly or irreversibly to proteins and alter their binding affinity

171
Q

Another name for antagonists

A

Inhibitors

172
Q

Define antagonists

A

Chemical modulators that bind to a protein and decrease its activity

173
Q

Define competitive inhibitors

A

A competitive inhibitor blocks ligand binding at the binding site

174
Q

Define Irreversible inhibitors

A

Bound and cannot be replaced

175
Q

Define allosteric inhibitors

A

Is a modulator that binds to proteins away from binding site and inactivates the binding site.

176
Q

Define Physical factors

A

Physical conditions have dramatic effects on protein structure and function

177
Q

Examples of physical factors

A

Small changes in pH or temperature

178
Q

Define denatured

A

When a protein loses its conformation

179
Q

Define net in regards to the body regulating the amount of protein in cells

A

Signalling pathways direct particular cells to make new proteins or to break down (degrade) existing proteins

180
Q

Define up-regulation in regards to the body regulating the amount of protein in cells

A

The programmed production of new proteins. Receptors, enzymes, and membrane transporters.

181
Q

Define down-regulation in regards to the body regulating the amount of proteins in cells

A

The programmed removal of proteins

182
Q

Define pH

A

The measure of concentration of free H+

183
Q

Define buffers

A

Are substances that moderate changes in pH

184
Q

Acid characteristics

A
  • Decrease pH
  • A molecule that contributes to H+ to a solution
  • Carboxyl group, -COOH
185
Q

Base characteristics

A
  • Increase pH
  • A molecule that decreases the H+ of a solution by combining with free H+
  • Molecules that produce hydroxide ions, -OH
186
Q

What separates cavities and what are they lined with?

A
  • Bones and tissues
  • Tissue membranes
187
Q

Define Lumen

A

The interior of any hollow organ

188
Q

Example of lumen

A

Stomach

189
Q

Characteristics of lumen

A
  • May be wholly or partially filled with air or fluid
  • For some organs, the lumen is part of the external environment
  • material must cross the wall of the organ to enter internal environment
190
Q

Function of the cell membrane

A

1) Physical isolation
2) Regulation off exchange with the environment
3) Communication between the cell and its environment
4) Structural support

191
Q

What is physical isolation?

A

Physical barrier that separates ICF from ECF and ions and components

192
Q

What is regulation of exchange with the environment?

A

Control entry of ions and nutrients, elimination of wastes, release of products
- Water can go through

193
Q

What is communication between the cell and its environment?

A

Proteins enable the cell to recognize and respond to molecules or changes in the external environment

194
Q

What is structural support?

A

Membrane proteins anchor the cytoskeleton to maintain cell shape or create junctions between adjacent cells or between cells and the extracellular matrix

195
Q

Define secretion

A

Cell releases a substance to the ECF

196
Q

Define cell membrane

A

Thin layer of lipids that separate the inside and outside of the cell

197
Q

Why does the cell membrane create a hydrophobic barrier?

A

Makes water get pushed through

198
Q

What makes up the cell membrane?

A

A double layer of phospholipids and protein molecules

199
Q

What are peripheral proteins?

A

Can be removed without disrupting the integrity of the membrane

200
Q

What are phospholipid heads?

A

Face the aqueous intracellular and extracellular compartments

201
Q

What are lipid tails?

A

Form the interior layer of the membrane

202
Q

What are micelles?

A

Droplets of phospholipids. They are important in lipid digestion.

203
Q

How do membrane lipids create a hydrophobic barrier

A

When placed in an aqueous solution, phospholipids align so their polar heads interact with water while the non polar fatty acid tails “hide” by putting the polar heads between themselves and the water

204
Q

Define peripheral proteins

A
  • Activating/ signalling, not transport
  • Attach to membrane proteins by non covalent interactions, removal does not disrupt membrane integrity
205
Q

Define integral proteins

A
  • More about transport than signalling the cell
  • Tight bound to the membrane, removal disrupts membrane integrity
206
Q

What are inclusions?

A

Inclusions are substances in the ICF that do not have boundary membranes

207
Q

Examples of inclusions

A
  • Glycogen
  • fat droplets
  • Ribosomes
  • Pigments
208
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Small granules of RNA and protein that manufacture proteins under the direction of the cell’s DNA
- Fixed ribosomes attach to the inside surface of organelles
- Free ribosomes are suspended free in the cytosol

209
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

The main site of protein synthesis

210
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

The cytoskeleton is a flexible, changeable scaffolding of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm.

211
Q

What are microvilli?

A
  • Microvilli increase cell surface area.
  • They are supported by microfilaments.
212
Q

What are microfilaments?

A
  • Microfilaments form a network just inside the cell membrane.
213
Q

What are microtubules?

A
  • Microtubules are the largest cytoskeleton fibre.
214
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A
  • Intermediate filaments include myosin and keratin.
215
Q

What are motor proteins?

A

Motor proteins convert stored energy into directed movement.

216
Q

What are organelles?

A

Organelles are sub cellular compartments separated from the cytosol by phospholipid membranes.

217
Q

What is the mitochondria?

A
  • The powerhouse of the cell
  • Where most of the ATP is synthesized
  • The inner matrix is surrounded by a membrane that folds into leaflets called cristae.
218
Q

What plays an important role in ATP production?

A
  • The inter membrane space, which lies between the two membranes
219
Q

What role does the Golgi apparatus and vesicles play?

A
  • Consists of a series of hollow curved sacs called cisternae stacked on top of one another and surrounded by vesicle’s.
  • Participates in protein modification and packaging
220
Q

Define secretory vesicles

A

Contain proteins that will be released from the cell

221
Q

Define storage vesicles

A

Never leave the cytoplasm

222
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and some foreign materials.

223
Q

What are lysosomes

A
  • Lysosomes are small, spherical storage vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes.
  • Lysosomes are the digestive system of the cell
224
Q

What is the nucleus?

A
  • Cells control centre
  • Contains DNA –> genetic material that controls all the cells processes
225
Q

What is the purpose of transcription?

A

Transcription produces mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and non - coding RNA

226
Q

What is the purpose of translation?

A

Translation produces proteins
- amino acids into a protein chain

227
Q

Steps in protein synthesis (1 - 10)

A

1) mRNA is transcribed from genes in the DNA
2) mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to cytosolic ribosomes, igniting protein synthesis
3) Some proteins are released by free ribosomes into the cytosol or are targeted to specific organelles
4) Ribosomes attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum direct proteins destined for packaging into the lumen of the rough ER
5) Proteins are modified as they pass through the lumen of the ER
6) Transport vesicles move the proteins from the ER to the Golgi apparatus
7) Golgi cisternae migrate toward the cell membrane
8) Some vesicles bud off the cisternae and move in a retrograde or backward fashion
9) Some vesicles bud off to form lysosomes or storage vesicles
10) Other vesicles become secretory vesicles that release their contents outside the cell.

228
Q

What are the four types of tissues?

A

1) Epithelial
2) Connective
3) Muscle
4. Neural

229
Q

Location of epithelial

A

Lines cavities/ surfaces

230
Q

Unique features of epithelial

A

No blood supply

231
Q

Location of connective tissue

A

Anchors muscle/ bones

232
Q

Cell arrangement of connective tissue

A

irregular/ matrix

233
Q

Unique feature of connective tissue

A

Less blood supply than muscles

234
Q

Location of muscle tissue

A
  • Cardiac
  • Smooth
  • Skeletal
235
Q

Cell arrangement of muscle tissue

A

long branch

236
Q

Unique feature of muscles tissues

A
  • Excitable
  • Increase blood supply
  • Contracts
237
Q

Location of neural tissues

A

All places
- CNS/ PNS

238
Q

Cell arrangement of neural tissues

A
  • Net work branch
239
Q

Unique features of neural tissues

A

Electrical signalling

240
Q

What is histology

A

The study of tissue structure and function

241
Q

What are epithelial tissues?

A
  • Protect the internal environment of the body
  • Regulate the exchange of materials between the internal and external environments
242
Q

Where are epithelial tissues found?

A

in lumen or alveoli or kidney

243
Q

Structure of epithelial tissues

A
  • One or more layers of cells connected to one another
  • thin layer of extracellular matrix lying between the epithelial cells and their underlying tissues
244
Q

Thin layer of epithelial tissues = _______

A

gas exchange

245
Q

Thick layer of epithelial tissues = ______

A

protection

246
Q

What are connective tissues?

A

Connective tissues provide structural support and sometimes a physical barrier that, along with specialized cells, helps defend the body from foreign invaders such as bacteria

247
Q

4 connective tissues

A

1) Bones - calcifies which is gives its strength and rigidity
2) Cartilage - Solid, flexible, lack of blood supply
3) Adipose tissue - energy storage, temperature regulation, protective layer
4) Blood - Transportation of materials

248
Q

What are muscle and neural tissues called and why?

A
  • Excitable tissues
  • They generate and propagate electrical signals
249
Q

What are muscle tissues?

A

Can contract and produce force and movement. Most skeletal muscles attach to bones and are responsible for gross movement of the body

250
Q

What are neural tissues?

A

Includes two types of cells, neurone, or nerve cells, which carry chemical and electrical signals from one part of the body to another. Glial cells, or neuroglia, are the support cells for neurons.

251
Q

What is extracellular matrix?

A

Is extracellular material that is synthesized and secreted by the cells of a tissue

252
Q

What is the purpose of extracellular matrix?

A
  • Growth and development to cell death.
253
Q

What is the components of extracellular matrix?

A

Proteoglycans: Covalently bound to polysaccharide chains
Insoluble protein fibres: Collagen, fibronectin. and laminin

254
Q

What are ways for cells to communicate with the external environment

A

Attachments between the extracellular matrix and proteins in the cell membrane or the cytoskeleton

255
Q

Define cell junctions

A

Membrane proteins and extracellular matrix that hold cells together to form tissues

256
Q

Define cell - adhesion molecules

A

membrane-spanning proteins responsible both for cell junctions and for transient cell adhesions

257
Q

What are the two ways cell death occurs?

A
  • Necrosis
  • Apoptosos
258
Q

Define necrosis

A

Cells die from physical trauma, toxins, or lack of oxygen (may damage adjacent cells triggering inflammatory response)

259
Q

Define apoptosos

A

programmed cell death, regulated by chemical signals (does not damage adjacent cells) –> Tissues get old

260
Q

Where do replacement cells come from?

A

Stem cells –> undifferentiated: can do different things

261
Q

First law of conservation of energy?

A

Total amount of energy in the universe is constant
- Most energy is lost as heat (only 1/5 is used by the body)

262
Q

What is energy?

A

The capacity to do work

263
Q

What is chemical work?

A

Making and breaking chemical bonds

264
Q

What is transport work?

A
  • Moving ions, molecules, and larger particles
  • Useful for creating concentration gradients
265
Q

What is mechanical work?

A
  • Moving organelles, changing cell shape, beating flagella and cilia
  • contracting muscles
266
Q

What are the three types of work?

A
  • Chemical
  • Transport
  • Mechanical
267
Q

Forms of energy = ________+ ________

A

Kinetic and potential

268
Q

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

A
  • processes move from state of order to randomness or disorder (entropy)
  • if you leave system alone, energy is lost
269
Q

How do cells obtain energy from and store energy in chemical bonds of biomolecules?

A

Using chemical reactions, cells transform potential energy of chemical bonds into kinetic energy for growth, maintenance, reproduction, and movement

270
Q

What can reactions do?

A

Move back and fourth to equilibrium

271
Q

What is carbonic anhydrase used for in humans?

A

To catalyze the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid and back again

272
Q

What is the formula for carbonic anhydrose?

A

H20 + CO2 –> H2CO3
H2CO3 –> H+ HC03

273
Q

Can reactions be irreversible or reversible?

A

yes

274
Q

What is a combination reaction?

A

A+B–>C

275
Q

What is a decomposition reaction?

A

C–>A+B

276
Q

Definition of condensation

A

The process of combining two molecules to form a larger molecule, with the release of a small molecule such as water.

277
Q

Definition of hydrolysis

A

The process of breaking down a larger molecule into smaller molecules by the addition of water.

278
Q

What is activation energy?

A

Is the push needed to start a reaction

279
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

Helps lower the activation energy

280
Q

What is free energy?

A

the potential energy stored in chemical bonds

281
Q

What is net free energy?

A

Change determines reaction reversibility

282
Q

What is endergonic?

A

Reactions using energy utilizing

283
Q

What is exergonic?

A

Reactions energy producing

284
Q

What is the active site on an enzyme?

A

binding site

285
Q

What do enzymes physically do?

A

Enzymes bring reactants together and may strength bonds to help with reactions

286
Q

Can enzymes be used more than once?

A

Yes, they are not altered in the reactions

287
Q

How many different enzymes are in a typical cell?

A

Approximately 4000

288
Q

What are isozymes?

A

Different forms of enzymes

289
Q

What are irreversible reactions?

A

Irreversible reactions lack the enzyme for the reverse direction

290
Q

Define metabolism

A

is all chemical reactions that take place in an organism

291
Q

Define catabolism

A

Energy-releasing breakdown

292
Q

Define anabolism

A

Energy-utilizing synthesis

293
Q

Define kilocalories

A

Energy released from or stored in chemical bonds
- Measure energy on the back of foods
- Energy it takes to raise one degree from fourteen to fifteen degrees in water

294
Q

What are intermediates?

A

Molecules in pathways

295
Q

How does ATP release energy?

A

By breaking phosphate bonds

296
Q

ATP _______ energy… It does not _______ energy

A
  • Provides
  • Store
297
Q

What produces more ATP, sugars or fats?

A
  • Fats –> take longer to replenish but produces more ATP
  • Glucose –> replenishes ATP fast
298
Q

Approximately how many ATP does a glucose molecule produce?

A

30 - 32

299
Q

Approximately how many ATP does a triacylglycerol produce?

A

480 ATP

300
Q

What is a 3 carbon molecule?

A

a Pyruvate

301
Q

What is a 2 carbon molecule?

A

Acetyl CoA

Kin 101 - Physiology (2 decks)

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