Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Developmental Psychology 1a > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

1.1 Define development, aging, and their relationship to each other.Explain and illustrate the role played by age grades, age norms, and the social clock in making human development different in different historical, cultural, and subcultural contexts.Summarize the messages of the life-span perspective on development.

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards AP® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

The 3 Domains of Human Development

A
  1. Biological/physcial development
  2. Cognitive Development
  3. Psychosocial Development
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is biological/physical development?

A

The growth of the body and its organs, the functioning of physiological systems, changes in motor abilities etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is cognitive development?

A

Changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is psychosocial development?

A

Changes and continuities in personal and interpersonal aspects of development including motives, emotions, personality traits, social skills etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

How do developmentalists study development relative to these 3 domains?

A

They approach development holistically as changes in one domain can affect the other (ie. a motor development milestone of crawling can also develop social skills by following parents)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

How does development progress in each domain?

A

While physical development can be seen as a gain-stability-loss model (becoming biologically mature and then aging), most development involves both gain and loss (ie. children gain cognitive abilities, but lose flexibility in thinking and self esteem.) In addition, instead of gain and loss, it could also be change or continuities.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Age and development

A

Age is only a rough indicator of development with changing standards of living, health and life spans. Individuals may also experience ages differently, some bed ridden or sportive at 90

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is emerging adulthood?

A

Around 18-25, where youth become educated, trained and are saving money to launch adulthood. They explore their identities, lead unstable lives with many changes, are self-focused, feel both adult and kid-like and believe in limitless future possibilities

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is considered adulthood?

A
  1. Leaving your home
  2. Getting a job
  3. Being married
  4. Having a child
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Delayed adulthood in the 21st century

A

Currently, many teens are reaching their teenage milestones and subsequently adult milestones later than before, indicating that development is slowing down

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is the impact of culture on development?

A

Each culture treats people in each age group/grade differently and gives different statuses, roles, privileges and responsibilities. A rite of passage in each culture also determines when the transition of one age group to another takes place. It also defines older generations differently. They also defines what people should do and act in each age group (age norms)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Why are age groups important?

A

As humans are social animals who like to fit in, age norms influence what we do and when in life. Impacting the social clock. However, nowadays, these age norms are weakening and more acceptance to do whatever at whatever age is becoming present.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is the impact of subculture on development?

A

Age grades, norms and social clocks also different from subculture to subculture just like in culture as a whole, depending on race, ethnicity, group affiliation and traditions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on development?

A

Based on occupational prestige, income and education, developmental markers are different. Individuals from lower SES tend to reach adult milestones earlier and feel as adults sooner as they may need to take on more responsibilities faster to take care of family. It can also be damaging, as lower SES can lead to stress, hunger, exposure to violence etc. Limiting the ability to provide a stable and safe home.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are the consequences of lower socioeconomic status (SES) in children?

A

It is linked to lower school achievement, poorer physical health, mental health and well-being. Impacting all the way to adulthood.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are the different historical changes to development?

A
  1. Childhood being seen as an age of innocence
  2. The idea of adolescence being a life phase
  3. The idea of emerging adulthood being a life phase
  4. Middle age as a life phase where children will grow up and leave the home as adults (could not in the past as parents died earlier)
  5. Old age as a time for retirement (as retirement was only recently introduced with increasing lifespans)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Declining life expectancy in the United States

A

Despite the overall climb of life expectancy over the years, the life expectancy in the U.S. has been declining likely due to “diseases of despair” increasing - drug overdoses, suicides and alcoholism. COVID-19 also did not help.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Why do some countries have a lower life expectancy than others?

A

They are often shortened by poverty and disease.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

The aging problem for the future (historical change)

A

Many of the world’s elders will be coping with chronic health conditions and disabilities and take up more of the population as generations age, relying on younger generations. There will also be disparities due to wealth on who gets care.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

The 7 key assumptions of the Life-Span Perspective

A
  1. Development is a lifelong process
  2. Development is multidirectional (not all development leads to one direction of mature functioning)
  3. Development involves both gain and loss (as well as gain and loss are linked)
  4. Development is characterised by lifelong plasticity
  5. Development is shaped by its historical-cultural context
  6. Development is multiply influenced
  7. Development must be studied by multiple disciplines.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Why did Darwin study his children?

A

He believed that infants share many characteristics with their nonhuman ancestors and that understanding the development of children can offer insights to the evolution of humans

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

How did Darwin’s theories impact early theories of human development?

A

Darwin’s evolutionary perspective emphasised universal, biologically based maturational changes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

G. Stanley Hall

A

The inventor of the questionnaire (to study children’s thinking). Inspired by Darwin, he characterised adolescence as a transitional time of heavy emotions (up and down) and rapid changes. A “storm and stress” period.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What do theories do?

A

It provides needed organisation and guides the collection of facts and observations, with:
- what is most important to study
- what can be hypothesised/predicted
- how it should be studied
- how findings should be interpreted

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What makes a good theory?

A

It should be falsifiable (it can be proven wrong in some way and specific enough to be tested) and supported by data (it’s predictions should be confirmed or supported by research results, and revised/abandoned if it doesn’t)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What are the 3 developmental issues discussed in human development?

A
  1. Nature-Nurture
  2. Continuity-Discontinuity
  3. Universality-Context Specificity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Nature-Nurture

A

Nature references influences like heredity, genes, evolution and others such as hormones or neurotransmitters. A strong nativist view believes that nature guides the same developmental changes about the same points in our lives, with individual genes making our lives unique. Nurture references influences in physical/social conditions, stimuli and events. Working in part due to learning. However, both and their interplay affects development. They also affect each other, such as with IQ having a natural cap but with proper stimulation reaching its peak. Experiences can also turn on/off genes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Continuity-Discontinuity

A

It is the debate on whether we will likely show characteristics displayed earlier in life later or whether we become completely different people - also whether these changes are abrupt or gradual. Continuity theorists see quantitative changes (in degree or amount) while discontinuity theorists see qualitative changes (in kind or type) making a fundamental difference.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Universality-Context Specificity

A

Stage theorists believe the stages of life development are universal across cultures, subcultures etc. Others say it is more varied due to influence of environment and context (such as culture). It asks the question of how alike/diverse are the development pathways humans travel?

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What are the 5 major theoretical viewpoints?

A
  1. Evolutionary theory
  2. Psychoanalytic theory
  3. Learning theory
  4. Cognitive-developmental theory
  5. Bioecological systems theory
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Who’s work are Evolutionary theories often based on?

A

Charles Darwin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Evolutionary Theory

A

Inspired by Darwin’s work, it looks to the evolution of the human species for explanations of why humans are as they are. Such as how the behaviours we have today were evolved through helping our ancestors to adapt to their environments. Examples are: close parent-infant attachments, attachment theory, formation of norms, rules and laws etc. It looks at nature and nurture, as specific genes are only advantageous in certain environments, with stages in continuity and discontinuity and universality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Psychoanalytic Theory

A

Inspired by Freud’s work, it has a focus on development and workings of personality (id, ego and superego), maturational stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital), unconscious motivation and defense mechanisms to combat inner conflicts and anxieties. Erikson, a Freud follower, broadened the psychosexual theories into adolescence , the conflicts at each 8 life phases, personalirt dynamics and identity vs. role confusion in adolescence. involves both nature and nurture; discontinuity (stages with carryover from early to later personality); universal emphasis by Freud but also more attention to cultural differences by Erikson

34
Q

Learning Theory

A

Inspired by the work of Pavlov, Watson and Skinner, theorists believe that learning is a significant factor in human development. Operant conditioning is an example of pivotal part of learning theory. Bandura’s social learning theory is another, which emphasises the importance of observational learning where we don’t experience the consequences ourselves but still learn. Learning theorists believe there are no stages, development can take any number of directions and is very much based in nurture (and is universal)

35
Q

Cognitive-Developmental Theory

A

Inspired by Piaget’s work, these theorists believe that through a combination of maturation and experience, children construct more advanced modes of thinking that progress through 4 different universal stages (sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational). Essentially on how children think differently than adults. Nurture emphasized; continuity (strengthening or weakening of behavior); context-specificity

36
Q

Bioecological Systems Theory

A

Theorists believe in the individual’s interactions with physical and social environments are inseparable parts of a larger system which affect everything else. Nature and nurture can therefore not be separated. Bronfenbrenner formed the bioecological model in order to reintroduce the individual (with unique genes and psychology) back into the contextless theories of the time. Nature and nurture (with a nurture emphasis); continuity or discontinuity possible; context-specificity emphasized

37
Q

What are Bronfenbrenner’s 4 environmental systems?

A
  1. Microsystem
  2. Mesosystem
  3. Exosystem
  4. Macrosystem
38
Q

Example of a microsystem

A

The microsystem for a firstborn infant is likely their family which influences them as much as they influence their family.

39
Q

Example of a mesosystem

A

An example is highly stressful events such as arguments with family (one microsystem) showing increased problems of attendance and difficulty learning (another microsystem)

40
Q

Example of an exosystem

A

Children can be affected by their parent’s stress levels due to work or what kind of community they live in

41
Q

Example of a macrosystem

A

An example is society’s cultural values, laws, political and economic systems

42
Q

What are the four goals of the study of life-span development?

A
  • Description
  • Prediction
  • Explanation
  • Optimisation
43
Q

How do developmentalists achieve “description”?

A

They characterise the functioning of humans of different ages and trace how it changes with age, describing both normal development and their individual differences.

44
Q

How do developmentalists achieve “prediction”?

A

They seek to identify factors that predict development

45
Q

How do developmentalists achieve “explanation”?

A

They seek to establish how factors explain development

46
Q

How do developmentalists achieve “optimisation”?

A

They seek to determine how humans can be enhanced/supported through their findings

47
Q

What are the steps of the scientific method?

A
  1. A theory is developed
  2. A hypothesis is formed
  3. The hypothesis is tested through research studies
  4. The observations then determine whether the ideas should be kept or not
48
Q

What is the best approach to pick a sample in a population?

A

Picking a random sample as it increases the confidence that the sample studied is representative of the larger population and will likely be more true

49
Q

How should researchers explain their sample?

A

By describing the characteristics of the sample they studied and avoid overgeneralising their findings where the population might be SE or culturally different

50
Q

What are the 3 broad methods of data collection?

A
  1. Verbal reports
  2. Behavioural observations
  3. Physiological measurements
51
Q

What are examples of verbal reports?

A

Interviews, written questionnaires or surveys, ability and achievement tests, and personality scales (self-report and reporting for someone else)

52
Q

What are the disadvantages of verbal reports?

A
  1. They can not be used with infants/ children with cognitive impairments who can not properly communicate
  2. Age differences in responses may reflect differences in comprehension rather than the variable
  3. Respondents may try to appear in a more positive light (socially desirable responding)
53
Q

When is naturalistic observation most used?

A

To study child development as they often can not be studied through self-reports or other techniques that demand verbal skills

54
Q

What are the disadvantages of naturalistic observations?

A
  1. Some behaviours occur too infrequently and unexpectedly
  2. It is difficult to pinpoint the causes of the behaviour observed because in a natural setting, many potential causes are operating at once
  3. The presence of an observer can sometimes make people behave differently
55
Q

What is a way to limit the disadvantages of natural observations?

A

To achieve greater control over variables, and to capture rarely occurring events, structured observation can be used.

56
Q

What is an example of physiological measurements?

A

fMRI

57
Q

What is the advantage of physiological measurements?

A

They are harder to fake

58
Q

What are the disadvantages of physiological measurements?

A

It is not always clear what the measurements are assessing.

59
Q

What are the uses that a Case Study method achieve?

A

It is useful for studying people with rare conditions, disorders and developmental experiences when a large sample is not available. It can also complement correlational/experimental research and a good source for hypotheses for future research

60
Q

What are the disadvantages of Case studies?

A

Conclusions based on a single (or very few) cases may not generalise to other individuals and conclusions about what may have caused a person to develop as they did often need further study

60
Q

What 3 critical features were in the DeLoache study?

A
  1. Random assignment to conditions: ensures that the outcomes were not due to confounds in the decision making of the assignment of conditions
  2. Manipulation of the independent variable: by not controlling the independent variable fully, a causal relationship may not be established properly
  3. Using an experimental control
61
Q

What are the limitations of the experimental method?

A

As the experiments are often conducted in highly controlled situations, it may not be applicable to the general population. Sometimes, it can also not be used for ethical reasons.

62
Q

What are some advantages of using correlational methods?

A

Due to how unethical certain experimental methods can be, correlational methods are used instead to determine relationships. It also involves the other factors that impact the correlation - making it more real-world accurate.

63
Q

What are the disadvantages of correlational methods?

A

Often, they can not determine a causal relationship.

64
Q

What are the 3 types of research methods?

A
  1. Correlational methods
  2. Experimental methods
  3. Case Study methods
65
Q

What are the 3 types of research design?

A
  1. Cross-sectional design
  2. Longitudinal design
  3. Sequential design
66
Q

What information does a cross-sectional study provides?

A

It provides information about age differences, examining how age groups differ - which researchers can use to draw conclusions about how performance changes with age

67
Q

What are the issues with cross-sectional studies?

A

Age effects and cohort effects are often confounded or entangled. They may say what the differences are between age groups, but not necessarily how people normally change as they get older. As each person is only observed once at one point, researchers learn nothing about how individuals (specifically) change with age.

68
Q

What do cohort effects reveal about development?

A

That differences in age groups are heavily affected by historical-cultural contexts which important to consider in research about these different age groups.

69
Q

Why are cross-sectional studies still used?

A

It is quick and easy, and if the cohorts are studied properly and have similar experiences growing up, it can still produce valid conclusions (with age groups close like 3-4 year olds instead of 30-40 year olds)

70
Q

What is the main difference between longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies?

A

Longitudinal studies study age changes over time instead of age differences/ differences between age groups

71
Q

What is the benefit of longitudinal studies?

A

It represents and takes into account historical and cultural changes and differences between age groups. It can also tell whether people change in the same direction or whether different individuals travel different developmental pathways, with behaviours being consistent over time or otherwise and whether early traits are exhibited later in life. It can also be analyzed to identify subgroups of individuals in a group who have distinct developmental differences.

72
Q

What are the limitations of longitudinal design?

A

Sometimes, if only one cohort is examined over a long period of time, it can not generalised to other groups in different cohorts at different times. In addition, age effects and time-of-measurement effects are confounded (such as measuring right before or right after 9/11). It is also often time-consuming and costly, and the methods might be considered outdated and participants may also lose interest, pass away etc.

73
Q

What can sequential designs inform?

A
  1. Which age-related trends are truly developmental in nature and reflect how most people can be expected to change over time
  2. Which age trends differ from cohort to cohort and include that each generation is affected by distinct life experiences
  3. Which trends suggest that events during a specific period of history affect all the cohorts alive at the time
74
Q

What are the disadvantages of sequential design?

A

They are often complex to execute and are expensive/rarely done.

75
Q

What are the challenges to developmental psychology today?

A
  1. Many studies are conducted on Americans and often do not include other cultures (its a study of WEIRD people) which can not be generalised to the whole human species
  2. Conducting research to other cultures with questionnaires, interviews etc. may not be meaningful in one culture in comparison to another, with nuances in language differences.
  3. Researchers may also struggle with limiting their own cultural bias in their research - many researchers now also include members of the studied cultural group to develop their methods
76
Q

How do research ethics impact developmental psychology?

A

Many researchers have different views for ethical research when it comes to consent, privacy and harm so researchers must be sensitive to ethical values.

77
Q

What ethical values must researchers follow?

A
  1. Allowing participants to freely give their informed consent
  2. Debriefing them afterward if they are not told everything in advance/they were deceived
  3. Protecting them from harm
  4. Treating the information they provide as confidential
78
Q

Informed Consent

A

Researchers should try to not pressure and inform potential participants of all aspects of the research which may affect their decision to participate so they can make a voluntary decision based on full knowledge of the experiment. For people who can not fully consent (disabled or children), they need an agreement by the participant and the one who decides on the individual’s behalf.

79
Q

Debriefing

A

Sometimes informing participants about the full experiment can ruin the study and manipulate results - therefore, you can debrief participants of the study afterward of the true purposes of the experiment as long as they do not leave upset or hurt

80
Q

Protection from Harm

A

Researchers are forbidden from harming participants psychologically or physically. While researchers may anticipate possible distress and are prepared to deal with the situation (such as a counselor on site), if harm is likely the study should not be done

81
Q

Confidentiality

A

Researchers are also responsible in keeping information from the study about participants confidential and not inform others of participant data. Only if the participants explicitly consents to having the data shared or if the law requires disclosure of the information can the dtaa be shared

Developmental Psychology 1a (6 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions