Chapter 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
The science of body structures and the relationships among them.
What was anatomy first studied by?
Dissection
Physiology
The science of body functions; how the body parts work.
The structures of a part of the body often reflect its ______.
Functions
What are the 6 levels of structural organization?
- Chemical level
- Cellular level
- Tissue level
- Organ level
- System level
- Organismal level
Chemical level
One of the levels of structural organization; this very basic level includes atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together.
Cellular level
One of the levels of structural organization; molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals. Cells are the smallest living units in the human body.
Tissue level
One of the levels of structural organization; tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function. There are just 4 basic types of tissues in your body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.
Organ level
One of the levels of structural organization; at the organ level, different types of tissues are joined together. Organs are structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues; they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes.
System level
One of the levels of structural organization; a system consists of related organs with a common function.
Organismal level
One of the levels of structural organization; all the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism.
What are the 6 important life processes of the human body?
- Metabolism
- Responsiveness
- Movement
- Growth
- Differentiation
- Reproduction
Metabolism
One of the important life processes of the human body; is the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body. One phase of metabolism is catabolism, the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components. The other phase of metabolism is anabolism, the building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components.
Responsiveness
One of the important life processes of the human body; is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes.
Movement
One of the important life processes of the human body; includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.
Growth
One of the important life processes of the human body; is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both.
Differentiation
One of the important life processes of the human body; is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Such precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation, are known as stem cells.
Reproduction
One of the important life processes of the human body; refers to either 1.) the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or 2.) the production of a new individual. The formation of new cells occur through cell division. The production of a new individual occurs through the fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell to form a zygote, followed by repeated cell divisions and the differentiation of these cells.
Body fluids
Dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding them.
Intracellular fluid
The fluid within the cell.
Extracellular fluid
The fluid outside body cells.
Interstitial fluid
The ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues.
Blood plasma
ECF within blood vessels.
Lymph
ECF within lymphatic vessels.
Cerebrospinal fluid
ECF in and around the brain and spinal cord.
Synovial fluid
ECF in the joints.
Aqueous humor/vitreous body
ECF of the eyes.
Which 2 regulating systems are responsible for bringing the internal environment into balance?
The nervous system and the endocrine system
Homeostasis
Is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body’s internal environment. It occurs because of the ceaseless interplay of the body’s many regulatory systems. Homeostasis is a dynamic condition.
Homeostasis in the human body is continually being ______.
Disturbed
Feedback system
A cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on.
Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose level, is termed a ______. Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a ______.
controlled condition (controlled variable); stimulus
What are the components of a feedback system?
Receptor, control centre, and effector
Receptor
A component of a feedback system; a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center. Typically, the input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals (Eg. Certain never endings in the skin sense temperature and can detect changes, such as a dramatic drop in temperature).
The receptor in a feedback system is also known as the ______ pathway.
Afferent - because the information flows toward the control center.
Control center
A component of a feedback system; sets the narrow range or set point within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed. Output from the control centre typically occurs as nerve impulses, or hormones or other chemical signals (Eg. Using the same example from above, the brain acts as the control centre, receiving nerve impulses from the skin receptors and generating nerve impulses as output).
The control centre in a feedback system is also known as the ______ pathway.
Efferent - because the information flows away from the control center.
Effector
A body structure that receives output from the control centre and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition. Nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an effector (Eg. When your body temperature drops sharply, your brain (control centre) sends nerve impulses (output) to your skeletal muscles (effectors). The result is shivering, which generates heat and raises your body temperature).
Negative feedback system
A negative feedback system reverses a change in a controlled condition (Eg. The regulation of blood pressure (BP)).
Positive feedback system
A positive feedback system strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions (Eg. Normal childbirth or losing a great deal of blood).
Anatomical position
Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a standard position or reference. In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The lower limbs are parallel, and the feet are flat on the floor and directed forward.
Prone position
Body is lying face down.
Supine position
Body is lying face up.
Head
Consists of the skull and face.
Neck
Supports the head and attaches it to the trunk.
Trunk
Consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis.
Upper limb
Attaches to the trunk and consists of the shoulder, armpit, arm, forearm, wrist, and hand.
Lower limb
Each lower limb also attaches to the trunk and consists of the buttock, thigh, ankle, and foot.
Directional terms
Words that describe the position of one body part relative to another. Several directional terms are grouped in pairs that have opposite meanings, such as anterior (front) and posterior (back). Another thing to note is that directional terms have relative meanings; they make sense only when used to describe the position of one structure relative to another. Eg. Your knee is superior to your ankle, even though both are located in the inferior half of the body.
Superior
Towards the head, or the upper part of a structure.
Inferior
Away from the head, or the lower part of a structure.
Anterior
Nearer to or at the front of the body.
Posterior
Nearer to or at the back of the body.
Medial
Nearer to the midline (an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal right and left sides).
Lateral
Farther from the midline (an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal right and left sides).
Intermediate
Between 2 structures.
Ipsilateral
On the same side of the body as another structure.
Contralateral
On the opposite side of the body from another structure.
Proximal
Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk; nearer to the origination of a structure.
Distal
Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk; farther from the origination of a structure.
Superficial
Towards or on the surface of the body.
Deep
Away from the surface of the body.
Anatomical planes
Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts.
Sagittal plane
A vertical plan that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides.
Midsagittal plane
When the sagittal plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal right and left side.
Parasagittal plane
When the sagittal plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides.
Frontal plane (coronal plane)
Divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
Transverse plane (cross-sectional plane/horizontal plane)
Divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.
Oblique plane
Passes through the body or an organ at an oblique angle (any angle other than a 90-degree angle)
Section
A cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the planes. Can be midsagittal, frontal, or transverse.
Body cavities
Spaces that enclose internal organs. Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities from one another.
Cranial cavity
Formed by cranial bones and contains brain.
Vertebral (spinal) canal
Contains spinal cord.
Thoracic cavity
Chest cavity; contains plural and pericardial cavities and the mediastinum.
Pericardial cavity
In the thoracic cavity (chest cavity); a potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart.
Pleural cavities
In the thoracic cavity (chest cavity); a potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung.
Mediastinum
Central part of the thoracic cavity.
Abdominopelvic cavity
Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.
Abdominal cavity
In the abdominopelvic cavity; contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.
Pelvic cavity
In the abdominopelvic cavity; contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system.
Organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are called ______.
Viscera.
Membrane
A thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions, or connects structures.
Serous membrane
Slippery, double-layered membrane associated with body cavities that don’t open directly to the exterior.
Pleura
The serous membrane of the pleural cavities.
Pericardium
The serous membrane of the pericardial cavity.
Peritoneum
The serous membrane of the abdominal cavity.
Retroperitoneal
Abdominal organs that are posterior to the peritoneum. The kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, duodenum of the small intestine, ascending and descending colons of the large intestine, and portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava are retroperitoneal.
Label the abdominopelvic regions and quadrants
