chapter 1 Flashcards
Developmental biology
The growth and development of an individual
from fertilization to death
Embryology
The first eight weeks of growth and development
after fertilization of a human egg; the earliest
stage of developmental biology
Cell biology
cellular structure and functions
histology
microscopic structure of tissues
gross anatomy
Structures that can be examined without a
microscope.
systemic anatomy
Structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or
respiratory systems
Regional anatomy
Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest.
surface (topographical) anatomy
Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy
through visualization and palpation (gentle touch).
Imaging anatomy
Internal body structures that can be visualized with techniques such
as x-rays, MRI, CT scans, and other technologies for clinical analysis
and medical intervention.
clinical anatomy
The application of anatomy to the practice of medicine, dentistry,
and other health-related sciences, for example, to aid in the
diagnosis and treatment of disease
pathological anatomy
structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with disease
molecular physiology
Functions of individual molecules such as proteins and
DNA
neurophysiology
Functional properties of nerve cells.
Endocrinology
hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they
control body functions
cardiovascular physiology
functions of the heart and blood vessels
immunology
The body’s defenses against disease-causing agents.
respiratory physiology
Functions of the air passageways and lungs.
renal physiology
functions of the kidney
exercise physiology
changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity
pathophysiology
functional changes associated with disease and aging
integumentary system and functions
Skin and associated
structures, such as hair, fingernails and
toenails, sweat glands, and oil glands.
Protects body; helps regulate
body temperature; eliminates some
wastes; helps make vitamin D; detects
sensations such as touch, pain, warmth,
and cold; stores fat and provides
insulation
skeletal system and functions
Components: Bones and joints of the
body and their associated cartilages.
Functions: Supports and protects body;
provides surface area for muscle
attachments; aids body movements;
houses cells that produce blood cells;
stores minerals and lipids (fats)
muscular system
Components: Specifically, skeletal muscle
tissue—muscle usually attached to bones
(other muscle tissues include smooth and
cardiac)
Functions: Participates in body
movements, such as walking; maintains
posture; produces heat
what are the 6 levels of the body’s structural organization
chemical level, cellular, tissue, organ, system and organism
nervous system
Components: Brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and special sense organs, such
as eyes and ears.
Functions: Generates action potentials
(nerve impulses) to regulate body
activities; detects changes in body’s
internal and external environments,
interprets changes, and responds by
causing muscular contractions or
glandular secretions.
endocrine system
Components: Hormone-producing glands
(pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary
gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries,
and testes) and hormone-producing cells in
several other organs
Functions : Regulates body activities by
releasing hormones (chemical messengers
transported in blood from endocrine gland
or tissue to target organ)
cardiovascular system
Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels
Functions: Heart pumps blood through blood
vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrients to
cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from
cells and helps regulate acid–base balance,
temperature, and water content of body fluids;
blood components help defend against disease
and repair damaged blood vessels.
lymphoid system and immunity
Components: Lymphatic fluid (lymph
plasma) and lymphatic vessels;
spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and
tonsils; cells that carry out immune
responses (B cells, T cells, and others
Functions: Returns proteins and fluid
to blood; carries lipids from
gastrointestinal tract to blood; contains
sites of maturation and proliferation of
B cells and T cells that protect against
disease-causing microbes.
respiratory system
Components: Lungs and air passageways
such as the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice
box), trachea (windpipe), and bronchial
tubes leading into and out of lungs.
Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled
air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood
to exhaled air; helps regulate acid– base
balance of body fluids; air flowing out of
lungs through vocal cords produces sounds
digestive system
Components: Organs of gastrointestinal
tract, a long tube that includes the
mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus
(food tube), stomach, small and large
intestines, and anus; also includes
accessory organs that assist in digestive
processes, such as salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas
unctions: Achieves physical and
chemical breakdown of food; absorbs
nutrients; eliminates solid wastes
urinary system
Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra.
Functions: Produces, stores, and eliminates
urine; eliminates wastes and regulates
volume and chemical composition of blood;
helps maintain the acid–base balance of
body fluids; maintains body’s mineral
balance; helps regulate production of red
blood cells.
genital reproductive system
Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and associated organs
(uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and mammary glands in females and
epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate, and penis in males).
Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new
organism; gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body
processes; associated organs transport and store gametes; mammary glands produce
milk
explain basic life processes
All living things have certain characteristics that
distinguish them from nonliving things
* Life processes in humans include metabolism,
responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation,
and reproduction
explain homeostasis
Homeostasis is a condition of equilibrium, or
balance, in the body’s internal environment
* Homeostasis is maintained by the body’s regulatory
processes
survival of our body cells is dependent on what type of fluid?
extracellular fluid
why do homeostatic imbalances occur?
disruptions from the external or internal environments
how is temperature balanced by homeostasis
maintained by balancing the loss of heat to the environment with the rate that it is produced by the body
what are basic components of a feedback loop
stimulus comes in, affects controlled condition, receptors recept, input goes to control center, effectors receive output, response that alters the controlled condition, returns to homeostasis
process of homeostasis: negative feedback
stimulus (increases controlled condition) blood pressure, receptors send nerve impulses, control center sends nerve impulses, effectors are heart and blood vessels, response decrease in heart rate and the dilation (widening) of blood vessels to decrease blood pressure
what is a positive feedback loop of homeostasis
labour is one because it increases the stretching of the cervix. It is a repeating cycle with no return to homeostasis
what could happen to homeostatic imbalances
When homeostasis is disrupted it may result in
disease, disorder, or even death
* Factors such as your genetic make-up, the air you
breathe, the food you eat, and the thoughts you
think can all affect your health
the types of anatomical terminology
Body positions
* Regional names
* Directional terms
* Planes and sections
* Body cavities
prone and supine
prone is body laying facedown and supine body lying faceup
what are the body cavities
cranial, vertebral
thoracic cavity (chest cavity), pleural, pericardial, mediastinum
abdominopelvic cavity, abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity
what are serous membranes
Serous membranes are thin, double-layered
membranes that cover the viscera within the
thoracic and abdominal cavities and also line the
walls of the thorax and abdomen
o Visceral layer
o Parietal layer
* Serous membranes reduce friction
what covers the heart and lungs
the pericardium and pleura cover it respectively
what covers many of the abdominal organs
peritoneum covers many
what is retroperitoneal
he classification some organs are
given because they are not surrounded by the
peritoneum; rather, they are posterior to it
what are the left and right regions of the abdominal cavity from top to bottom
left hypochondriac, left lateral, left inguinal
right is the same
what are middle regions of the abdominal cavity
epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric
name the planes from the abdominal cavity from the middle and to top from bottom and what they separate
midclavicular planes is the middle, subcostal plane, transtubercular plane
what are the quadrants of the abdominal cavity
right upper and lower quadrant (RUQ and RLQ)
left upper and lower quadrant (LUQ and LLQ)
what are the planes that separate the quadrants
median plane down the middle and transumbilical plane separates the upper and lower quadrants
define aging and how it affects homeostasis
Aging is a normal process characterized by a
progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore
homeostasis.
o Impacts all body systems
o Produces structural and functional changes
o Increases vulnerability to stress and disease
what is medical imaging
Medical imaging involves techniques that allow
physicians to view images of the human body
* This allows physicians to diagnose anatomical and
physiological abnormalities
one medical imaging procedure that involves x-ray and how it works
Radiography
A single barrage of x-rays passes through the body, producing an image of interior
structures on x-ray-sensitive film. The resulting two- dimensional image is a radiograph (RA-dē-ō-
graf’), commonly called an x-ray
2 medical imaging procedures that involves magnets
MRI and CT scan
MRI Procedure: The body is exposed to a high-
energy magnetic field, which causes
protons (small positive particles within
atoms, such as hydrogen) in body fluids
and tissues to arrange themselves in
relation to the field. Then a pulse of radio
waves “reads” these ion patterns, and a
color-coded image is assembled on a video
monitor. The result is a two- or three-
dimensional blueprint of cellular
chemistry
CT procedure
Procedure: In this form of computer-assisted
radiography, an x-ray beam traces an arc at
multiple angles around a section of the body.
The resulting transverse section of the body,
called a CT scan, is shown on a video monitor.
differences between MRI and CT scan
MRI :Relatively safe but cannot
be used on patients with metal in their
bodies. Shows fine details for soft
tissues but not for bones. Most useful
for differentiating between normal and
abnormal tissues. Used to detect
tumors and artery-clogging fatty
plaques; reveal brain abnormalities;
measure blood flow; and detect a
variety of musculoskeletal, liver, and
kidney disorders
CT: Visualizes soft tissues and
organs with much more detail than
conventional radiographs. Differing tissue
densities show up as various shades of
gray. Multiple scans can be assembled to
build three”−”dimensional views of
structures (described next). Whole-body
CT scanning typically targets the torso and
appears to provide the most benefit in
screening for lung cancers, coronary
artery disease, and kidney cancers
medical imaging involving sound waves
Ultrasound scanning
High‐frequency sound waves produced by a handheld wand reflect off
body tissues and are detected by the same instrument. The image, which may be still
or moving, is called a sonogram (SON-ō-gram) and is shown on a video monitor
Safe, noninvasive, painless, and uses no dyes. Most commonly used to
visualize the fetus during pregnancy. Also used to observe the size, location, and
actions of organs and blood flow through blood vessels (Doppler ultrasound)
medical imaging involving iodine injection
CCTA scan Coronary computed tomography angiography
Procedure: In this form of computer-assisted
radiography, an iodine-containing contrast
medium is injected into a vein and a beta blocker
is given to decrease heart rate. Then, numerous
x-ray beams trace an arc around the heart and a
scanner detects the x-ray beams and transmits
them to a computer, which transforms the
information into a three-dimensional image of
the coronary blood vessels on a monitor. The
image produced is called a CCTA scan and can be
generated in less than 20 seconds
Used primarily to determine if
there are any coronary artery blockages (for
example, atherosclerotic plaque or calcium)
that may require an intervention such as
angioplasty or stent. The C CTA scan can be
rotated, enlarged, and moved at any angle.
The procedure can take thousands of
images of the heart within the time of a
single heartbeat, so it provides a great
amount of detail about the heart’s
structure and function.
medical imaging involving injection of positive charged particles positrons
Positron emission tomogaphy PET
A substance that emits positrons
(positively charged particles) is injected into the
body, where it is taken up by tissues. The collision
of positrons with negatively charged electrons in
body tissues produces gamma rays (similar to x-
rays) that are detected by gamma cameras
positioned around the subject. A computer
receives signals from the gamma cameras and
constructs a PET scan image, displayed in color
on a video monitor. The P ET scan shows where
the injected substance is being used in the body.
In the PET scan image shown here, the black and
blue colors indicate minimal activity; the red,
orange, yellow, and white colors indicate areas of
increasingly greater activity.
Used to study the physiology of
body structures, such as metabolism in the
brain or heart.
medical imaging involving going inside with a tube
endoscopy
Procedure: Endoscopy involves the visual examination of the inside of body organs or cavities
using a lighted instrument with lenses called an endoscope. The image is viewed through an
eyepiece on the endoscope or projected onto a monitor.
Comments: Examples include colonoscopy (used to examine the interior of the colon, which is
part of the large intestine), laparoscopy (used to examine the organs within the abdominopelvic
cavity), and arthroscopy (used to examine the interior of a joint, usually the knee).
medical imaging used to study activity of a tissue or organ
Radionuclide scanning
A radionuclide (radioactive substance) is introduced intravenously into the
body and carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged. Gamma rays emitted by the
radionuclide are detected by a gamma camera outside the subject, and the data are
fed into a computer. The computer constructs a radionuclide image and displays it in
color on a video monitor. Areas of intense color take up a lot of the radionuclide and
represent high tissue activity; areas of less intense color take up smaller amounts of
the radionuclide and represent low tissue activity. Single-photon-emission computed
tomography (SPECT) scanning is a specialized type of radionuclide scanning that is
especially useful for studying the brain, heart, lungs, and liver.
Comments: Used to study activity of a tissue or organ, such as searching for malignant
tumors in body tissue or scars that may interfere with heart muscle activity.
