Chapter 1 Flashcards
Science
: body of knowledge about reality and a set of methods for generating this knowledge
Two approaches to scientific knowledge
Agreement reality
• What we know as a part of culture and those around us
Experiential reality
• What we know from personal experience
2 pillars of science
Logical
• Must make sense
Empirical
• Be supported by observation
Methodology
: set of practices and techniques used to collect process and interpret information amid at enhancing our understanding of reality
ordinary human inquiry the two methods
Casual reasoning
: Future circumstances are rooted or conditioned by present ones
o Ex: getting an education affects how much money you make
o Ex: go beyond reef may encounter shark
Probabilistic reasoning
: Effects occur more often but always when specific causes are present
• Ex; recognize the danger swimming behind a reef from sharks but know not all attacks will be fatal
two things that hinder human inquiry
Tradition
o All inherit culture made up of firmly accepted knowledge about the world
o May test but simply accept they are true or things everybody knows
o Ex: eating too much cady decays your teeth, masturbation will bind us
o Can be bad
Can hinder human inquiry’s
• Won’t seek out what we think we know
Authority
believing depends on status of the person
Ex more likely to believe a DR
o Can assist and hinder human inquiry
o Authority can give wrong or misleading information weather not they mean to
4 errors in finding information
Inaccurate observations
Make mistakes in observation
Often because we use casual or semi-conscious observations
Solution
• Observation is a conscious activity make observation more deliberate
• Simple and complex measuring devices help guard against
Overgeneralization
When we look for patterns, we assume similar events are evidence of a general pattern
Selective observation
Overgeneralization leads to selective observation
Tendency to look at future based of past patterns
Racial and ethnic prejudice
Uses conformation bias
• Tendency to seek out recall or interpret information that supports ones existing views
• To help against
o Specify before the number and kind of observations to be mase as a bias for reaching a conclusion
Illogical reasoning
Other ways in which we deal with observations that contradict our understanding of the way we think in our daily life
Gambler’s fallacy
• Mistaken belief that random events will balance out over time
3 types of experiences
Concrete experiences
Empirical
5 senses (touch, taste, smell, sight, hear)
Components are called percepts which come together to form patterns
Notable facts
• We share world with other creatures and experience their own concrete experiences
• Concrete is meaningless by itself
Abstract experiences
Imaginary experiences in the mind
Composed of concepts that form propositions
Give meaning to life
Reality experiences
Facts which are related to knowledge
3 main aspects of social science
Theory
• Interrelates propositions providing a logical explanation of empirical regularities
Data collection
• Accurately observing empirical patterns
Analysis
is science theory or belief?
o Concerned with what is not what should be
o Did not used to be like this
o People would let opinion influence them
o Scientific theory cannot settle debates about theory
o Ex: cannot determine if socialism or capitalism is better
o Can see how systems perform based on criteria
For example freedom or dignity
is there more certainty in physical science or social science
social science
o Ex: when drop a ball it drops
o Vs Ex: someone may vote differently from election to election
aggregate
a group os people
variables
o Properties of an object that can change
o Different scores that comprise a variable
o Use variables for two purposes
Characterize a single object
• Ex: (colour, size, shape)
Compare different objects
attributes
o Properties of object that change
o Are variables changes across a set of scores
ex: male or female
constants
Properties that do not change across objects or over time
- Are interests in explanations
are we more interests in variables or constants
constants as we are interests in explanations that account for events that occur in the past
Idiographic explanation
o Explanation that aims to understand or make sense of specific events
o Ex: failed exam because missed the bus and your roommate kept you up the night before
scope is limited to single case on hand
nomothetic
o Identifies a few common causes of a broad category of events
o Explains a class of situations or events rather than a single one
o Ex: when study with a group you do better on an exam
o Use words like
Usually, on the whole, all else being equal
inductive vs deductive
Inductive
o Form of reasoning that moves from specific case to the general case
o Moves from set of specific observation to the discovery of a pattern
o Does not tell you why the pattern exists
o Ex: list exams noting how well you did on each then try to see if you did better on multiple choice, long answer
o Goes from whether to why
Deductive
o Reasoning that moves from the general principles to a specific case
o ex: try to find the best way to study for exams by adding pros and cons
o goes from abstract/ conceptual thought to concrete/ empirical observation
o a patten to and observation
o goes from why to whether
qualitative vs quantitative data
quantitative
o numbers
o easier to compare and summarize data
qualitative
o words
o gives richness to data
pure vs applied research
Pure Research
o Investigation driven by curiosity and satisfied by understanding something previously unknown
o Knowledge for knowledge’s sake
o Satisfies curiosity about something
Applied Research
o Investigations directed toward insights that allows us to live more efficiently or effectively
o Put research into practice for the greater good
when using mixed methods of research a researcher will
o Collect both quantitative and qualitative data
o Mix the two forms of data and combine them
o Give priority to one or both types of data
o Frame procedures
o Combine procedures into specific research design that direct plan for conducting the study
why use mixed methods of data 4 reasons
- Triangulation
a. Gives multiple points of view on some phenomenon
b. If similar viewpoint it reinforces our conclusion
c. If different viewpoints then examining deeper can help enrich understanding - Offsetting strengths and weaknesses
a. Uses the strengths and weaknesses of both methods - Complementarity
a. Different methods can give different pieces of the puzzle
b. Can be combined to give more comprehensive conclusion
c. Increases meaningfulness of conclusion - Development
a. Use one method to shape or inform the findings of another method
MMR design - Convergent parallel
(QUAN + QUAL)
o Both QUAN and QUAL are collected and analyzed in the same stage
o Results are combined to generate an overall interpretation
MMR design - Explanatory Sequential
QUAN -> qual
o Two distinctive phases
1st quantitative data collection and analysis
2nd qualitive phase used to enhance understanding
MMR design - Exploratory sequential
QUAL -> quan
o 2 phases
1st get explanatory data qualitive data
2nd quantitative data used to test or generalize the previous findings
MMR design- Embedded
Embedded
QUAN (qual) or QUAL(quan)
o Combining the collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data
o The secondary method is embedded in the primary design
o Collection of the secondary data may occur before, during, or after collection of primary data
