Chap 3 - Anatomy and Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
CNS
A
brain
spinal cord
central nervous system
2
Q
PNS
A
connects brain and spinal cord to rest of the body
- somatic nervous system
- autonomic nervous system
peripheral nervous system
3
Q
somatic nervous system
A
consists of axons conveying messages from sense organs to CNS and from CNS to muscles
4
Q
autonomic nervous system
A
controls heart, intestines, and other organs
Has some cell bodies w/in brain or spinal cord or in clusters along the sides of the spinal cord
5
Q
ventral
A
towards the stomach
6
Q
dorsal
A
towards the back
7
Q
spinal cord
A
part of the CNS found w/in spinal column
Communicates with the sense organs and muscles, except those of the head
8
Q
Bell-Magendie law
A
entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and exiting ventral roots carry motor information
9
Q
dorsal root ganglia
A
Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord
10
Q
spinal cord is comprised of:
A
Grey matter
White matter
Each segment sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands
11
Q
Grey matter
A
located in the center of the spinal cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites
12
Q
White matter
A
composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries information from the gray matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord
13
Q
autonomic nervous system
A
sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc.)
- sympathetic nervous system
- parasympathetic nervous system
14
Q
sympathetic nervous system
A
network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity:
- Increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc. (“fight or flight” response)
- Comprised of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal cord
15
Q
Postganglionic axons of the parasympathetic nervous system mostly release ________ as a neurotransmitter.
A
acetylcholine
16
Q
The sympathetic nervous system mostly uses _______.
A
norepinephrine
17
Q
3 major divisions of the brain:
A
- hindbrain
- midbrain
- forebrain
18
Q
Hindbrain
A
located at the posterior portion of the brain
19
Q
Hindbrain structures, the midbrain, and other central structures of the brain combine and make up the:
A
brain stem
20
Q
Medulla
A
Located just above the spinal cord and could be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord
- Responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing and sneezing
21
Q
Cranial nerves
A
allow the medulla to control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and many parasympathetic outputs to the organs
22
Q
Pons
A
Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and anterior)
- Along with the medulla, contains the reticular formation and raphe system
- Works in conjunction to increase arousal and readiness of other parts of the brain
23
Q
Cerebellum
A
Structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds
- Helps regulate motor movement, balance, and coordination
- Also important for shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli
24
Q
reticular formation
A
- Descending portion is one of several brain areas that control the motor areas of the spinal cord
- Ascending portion sends output to much of the cerebral cortex, selectively increasing arousal and attention
25
raphe system
sends axons to much of the forebrain, modifying the brain’s readiness to respond to stimuli
26
Midbrain
- Tectum
- Superior colliculus / inferior colliculus
- Tegmentum
- Substantia nigra
27
Tectum
roof of the midbrain
28
Superior colliculus and Inferior colliculus
processes sensory info
29
Tegmentum
contains nuclei for cranial nerves and part of the reticular formation
30
Substantia nigra
gives rise to the dopamine-containing pathway facilitating readiness for movement
31
Forebrain
most anterior and prominent part of the mammalian brain and consists of two cerebral hemispheres
- Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions
- Outer portion is known as the “cerebral cortex”
- Each side receives sensory information and controls motor movement from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body
32
limbic system
consists of a number of other interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem
- Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex
- Assoc w/ motivation, emotion, drives, and aggression
33
Subcortical regions
structures of the brain that lie underneath the cortex
34
Subcortical structures of the forebrain include:
- thalamus
| - hypothalamus
35
thalamus
relay station from the sensory organs and main source of input to the cortex
36
hypothalamus
- Small area near base of the brain
- Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of hormones
- Assoc w/ behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual behavior and other motivated behaviors
37
Thalamus and the hypothalamus together form the :
diencephalon
38
pituitary gland
hormone producing gland found at the base of the hypothalamus
39
basal ganglia
lateral to thalamus
comprised of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus
- Assoc w/ planning of motor movement, and aspects of memory and emotional expression
- Also important for attention, language planning, and other cognitive functions
40
Basal forebrain
comprised of several structures that lie on the dorsal surface of the forebrain
41
Basal forbrain contains the:
nucleus basalis
42
nucleus basalis
- Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia
- Sends axons that release acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex
- Key part of the brains system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention
43
Hippocampus
large structure located between the thalamus and cerebral cortex
- Toward the posterior portion of the forebrain
- Critical for storing certain types of memory, particularly new events
44
Ventricles
four fluid-filled cavities within the brain containing cerebrospinal fluid
45
central canal
fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord
46
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
clear fluid found in the brain and spinal cord
- Provides “cushioning” for the brain
- Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord
47
meninges
are membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord
brain has no pain receptors, but the meninges do
48
Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are the cause of :
migraine headaches
49
cerebral cortex
most prominent part of the mammalian brain; consists of the cellular layers on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres
- Divided into two halves
- Joined by two bundles of axons called the CORPUS CALLOSUM and the ANTERIOR COMMISSURE
- More highly developed in humans than other species
50
organization of cerebral cortex
- Contains up to six distinct laminae (layers) that are parallel to the surface of the cortex
- Cells of the cortex are also divided into columns that lie perpendicular to the laminae
- Divided into four lobes: occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal
51
occipital lobe
- Located at the posterior end of the cortex
- Known as the striate cortex or the primary visual cortex
- Highly responsible for visual input
- Damage can result in cortical blindness
52
parietal lobe
- Contains the postcentral gyrus (“primary somatosensory cortex”)
= Primary target for touch sensations and information from muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors
- Responsible for processing and integrating information about eye, head and body positions from information sent from muscles and joints
- Essential for spatial information as well as numerical information
= Example: using one’s fingers to count represents an overlap of spatial and numerical tasks
53
temporal lobe
- Located on the lateral portion of each hemisphere near the temples
- Target for auditory information and essential for processing spoken language
- Responsible for complex aspects of vision, including movement and some emotional and motivational behaviors
54
frontal lobe
Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus
55
Precentral gyrus
also known as the primary motor cortex; responsible for the control of fine motor movement
56
Prefrontal cortex
: the integration center for all sensory information and other areas of the cortex (most anterior portion of the frontal lobe)
- Responsible for higher functions such as abstract thinking and planning
- Responsible for our ability to remember recent events and information (“working memory”)
- People with damage to the prefrontal cortex exhibit delayed-response task: have to respond to something they see or hear after a delay
57
How do the parts work together?
Various parts of the cerebral cortex do not work independently of each other
- All areas of the brain communicate with each other, but no single central processor exists that puts it all together
58
binding problem
refers to how the visual, auditory, and other areas of the brain produce a perception of a single object
- Perhaps the brain binds activity in different areas when they produce synchronous waves of activity
59
for binding to occur
A person perceives two sensations as happening at the same time and in the same place
Example: a ventriloquist uses the visual stimulus to alter the response of the auditory cortex
60
Main categories of research methods to study the brain include those that attempt to:
- Examine the effects of brain damage
- Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area
- Record brain activity during behavior
- Correlate brain anatomy with behavior
61
Effects of brain damage
can produce an inability to recognize faces, an inability to perceive motion, changes in emotional responses, and many more effects
62
ablation
removal of brain area
63
lesion
damage to a brain area, often done for research
64
Stereotaxic instrument
used to damage structures in the interior of the brain
65
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
application of an intense magnetic field to a portion of the scalp to temporarily deactivate neurons below the magnet
- Allows researchers to study behavior with a brain area active, then inactive, then active again
66
Effects of brain stimulation
- stimulation of a brain area should increase behavior
- Electrodes can probe the brain of a person undergoing brain surgery
- A limitation is that complex behaviors depend on temporal pattern of activity in many areas
67
Optogenetics
a technique that allows researchers to turn on activity in targeted neurons by a device that shines a laser within the brain
68
Recording brain activity involves using a variety of noninvasive methods, including:
- Electroencephalograph (EEG)
- Magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
- Positron-emission tomography (PET)
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
69
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
records electrical activity produced by various brain regions
- Can produce evoked potentials that self-reports sometimes do not reveal
70
Magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
similar to EEG but measures faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity instead
71
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
records emission of radioactivity from injected radioactive chemicals to produce a high- resolution image
72
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
modified version of an MRI that uses oxygen consumption in the brain to provide a moving and detailed picture
- Safer and less expensive than PET
- Comparison tasks are used to compare the brain pictures while person is engaged in different activities and recordings can allow researchers to predict the behavior
73
The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior is known as:
phrenology
- One of the first ways used to study the brain
- Yielded few, if any, accurate results
74
Correlating brain activity with behavior can involve the identifying of peculiar behaviors and looking for abnormal brain structures or function
- Computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
| - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
75
Computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
- involves the injection of a dye into the blood and a passage of x-rays through the head
- Scanner is rotated slowly until a measurement has been taken at each angle and a computer constructs the image
- Used to identify tumors and abnormalities
= Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
76
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
involves the application of a powerful magnetic field to image the brain
77
brain size and intelligence
Research has not supported that a larger brain is correlated with higher intelligence
Brain-to-body ratio research has some limited validity
Moderate correlation exists between IQ and brain size (.3)
Amount of grey and white matter may also play a role
IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter
Men have larger brains than women but IQ is the same
78
brain size and intelligence
Various differences in specific brain structures exist between men and women, but the number of neurons are about the same for both
Explanations in differences in cognitive abilities can perhaps be better explained by interest than abilities (i.e., more male chess masters because more boys play chess)
Greater resemblance among twins for both brain size and IQ
For monozygotic twins, the size of one twin’s brain correlates significantly with the other twin’s IQ
Therefore, whatever genes that control the brain also relate to IQ
