chap 3 Flashcards
What is the primary focus of behavioral scientists when conducting research?
Defining and measuring the variables they study
What are the two key criteria used to evaluate the quality of a measurement procedure?
- Validity
- Reliability
Define an artifact in the context of research.
An artifact can influence the results of a research study, such as experimenter bias and demand characteristics.
What did previous research indicate about heterosexual men’s perception of women wearing red?
They perceive women as being more attractive when wearing red.
In the study by Guéguen and Jacob (2012), what was the outcome regarding male customers’ tipping behavior?
Male customers gave significantly bigger tips to waitresses wearing red.
What are constructs in behavioral science?
Hypothetical variables that cannot be directly observed or measured.
What is an operational definition?
A procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.
What is a limitation of operational definitions?
There is not a one-to-one relationship between the variable being measured and the actual measurements produced.
What is an example of a construct that can be operationally defined?
Intelligence, as measured by an IQ test.
Fill in the blank: The operational definition of hunger can include _______.
the number of hours of food deprivation
True or False: Operational definitions always capture every component of a construct.
False
What is the goal of an operational definition?
To provide a definition and a method for measuring a hypothetical construct.
Define validity in the context of measurement.
The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure.
What is face validity?
The superficial appearance or face value of a measurement procedure.
What type of relationship is indicated when two measurements change together in the same direction?
Positive relationship
What type of relationship is indicated when one measurement increases while the other decreases?
Negative relationship
Explain the role of multiple measures in evaluating constructs.
Using two or more different procedures to measure the same variable helps reduce the risk of leaving out important components.
What is a scatter plot used for in research?
To illustrate the consistency of the relationship between two different measurements.
What is the main idea behind operationalizing a construct?
To define and measure variables that cannot be directly observed.
What can affect the performance on a measurement task, such as an exam?
Physical illness or fatigue.
What does it mean to operationalize a construct?
To define and measure a hypothetical construct using observable behaviors.
What are the two general criteria used to evaluate the quality of any measurement procedure?
- Validity
- Reliability
What is validity in measurement procedures?
The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure.
Define face validity.
The superficial appearance of a measurement procedure; if it looks like it measures what it claims to measure.
What is concurrent validity?
Establishing validity by demonstrating that scores from a new measurement are directly related to scores from an established measurement of the same variable.
What does predictive validity indicate?
When measurements of a construct accurately predict behavior according to a theory.
Define construct validity.
Scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself.
What is convergent validity?
Demonstrated by a strong relationship between scores obtained from two different methods of measuring the same construct.
What is divergent validity?
Demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs.
What is reliability in measurement procedures?
The ability of a measurement procedure to produce identical or nearly identical results when used repeatedly under the same conditions.
What are common sources of measurement error?
- Observer error
- Environmental changes
- Participant changes
What is the relationship between error and reliability?
When error is large, reliability is low; when error is small, reliability is high.
What is test-retest reliability?
The reliability estimate obtained by comparing scores from two successive measurements.
True or False: Face validity is a scientific form of validity.
False.
What is the significance of a correlation near +1.00?
It indicates a consistent positive relationship between two measurements.
What does a correlation near zero indicate?
An inconsistent relationship between two measurements.
Fill in the blank: A measurement procedure is said to have _______ if it produces identical results when used repeatedly.
[reliability]
What is the main goal of establishing construct validity?
To show that the measurement procedure produces scores that behave in accordance with everything known about the construct.
How do researchers demonstrate convergent validity?
By showing strong relationships among different methods measuring the same construct.
What is an example of observer error?
A baseball umpire making inconsistent calls on balls and strikes.
What is the role of past research in establishing construct validity?
To document how the specific variable behaves across different situations.
Why might high face validity create problems in research?
Participants may adjust their answers if they know what is being measured.
What is the outcome if a measurement has low construct validity?
It does not accurately capture the variable it is supposed to measure.
Fill in the blank: High scores on the Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS) predict higher _______ referrals.
[discipline]
What is reliability in the context of measurement?
The stability or consistency of the measurements produced by a specific measurement procedure.
What is test-retest reliability?
The reliability estimate obtained by comparing scores from two successive measurements of the same individuals.
What is parallel-forms reliability?
The reliability measure obtained when different versions of the measuring instrument are used for test and retest.
What is inter-rater reliability?
The degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of behaviors.
What is split-half reliability?
A measure obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half and computing the degree of consistency between the two scores.
What is the equation that expresses the relationship between measured score, true score, and error?
Measured Score = True Score + Error
True or False: A measurement can be reliable without being valid.
True
What is the main assumption behind the concept of reliability?
The variable being measured is stable or constant.
What happens to the error component in measurements over a series of trials?
It generally averages to zero.
What is the relationship between reliability and validity?
Reliability is a prerequisite for validity; a measurement cannot be valid unless it is reliable.
Fill in the blank: A measure cannot be _______ unless it is reliable.
valid
What kind of relationship exists between educational TV and high school grades according to research?
Positive
What type of validity is demonstrated when participants who scored high on a self-esteem test made more eye contact?
Concurrent validity
What are the four scales of measurement?
- Nominal
- Ordinal
- Interval
- Ratio
True or False: A measurement process can be valid and reliable even if it is not accurate.
True
What is the meaning of a ratio scale’s zero point?
It is a meaningful point representing none (a complete absence) of the variable being measured.
What is the key characteristic of a ratio scale?
An absolute, non-arbitrary zero point.
What is internal consistency in measurement?
The degree of consistency among different items measuring the same construct.
What does a ratio scale allow you to measure?
The distance from zero and compare measurements in terms of ratios
How does a glass with 8 ounces of water compare to a glass with 4 ounces?
The glass with 8 ounces has twice as much as the glass with 4 ounces
What can be measured with a ratio scale?
- Physical measures (height, weight)
- Variables (reaction time, number of errors on a test)
What is the key difference between an interval scale and a ratio scale?
The definition of the zero point
In a ratio measurement, how does an 80-pound child compare to a 40-pound child?
The 80-pound child weighs twice as much as the 40-pound child
What happens when the zero point is defined as the average weight for a group?
Measurements form an interval scale
What score does a child who is 12 pounds above average receive?
+12 pounds
What score does a child who is 4 pounds below average receive?
-4 pounds
True or False: The distinction between interval and ratio scales has significant practical implications.
False
What do nominal scales allow you to determine?
Whether two scores are the same or different
What information can ordinal scales provide beyond nominal scales?
The direction of the difference
Fill in the blank: The ability to measure _______ is often more important than the ability to measure ratios.
distances
What is a key limitation of nominal measurements?
You cannot measure the size of the difference between scores
What does an interval scale provide information about?
The distance between two scores
For most applications, what is more important: the ability to measure distances or ratios?
The ability to measure distances
What is a characteristic of ratio scales in relation to zero?
Zero corresponds to none of the quantity being measured
How do interval scales differ from ratio scales in terms of information provided?
- Provide the same information about distance
- Do not allow for ratio comparisons
What type of scale only allows you to determine whether two scores are the same or different?
Nominal scale
What kind of scores does a child receive on an interval scale if they are measured relative to an average?
Scores based on their difference from the average
What are the four types of measurement scales identified by researchers?
Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
These scales differ based on the relationships among categories and the information provided.
What does a nominal scale represent?
Qualitative differences in the variable measured
Categories are not related in any systematic way, e.g., academic majors.
What can measurements from a nominal scale determine?
Whether two individuals are the same or different
Quantitative comparison is not possible.
How are categories organized in an ordinal scale?
In an ordered series
Examples include ranks like first, second, third.
What is a limitation of ordinal scales?
Do not allow determination of the magnitude of the difference
We know the direction of difference but not how much.
What distinguishes interval and ratio scales from nominal and ordinal scales?
Categories are organized sequentially with equal intervals
Examples include measures of time, weight, and temperature.
What is a characteristic of an interval scale?
Has an arbitrary zero point
For example, 0 degrees Fahrenheit does not mean absence of temperature.
What is the main difference between interval and ratio scales?
The presence of a true zero point in ratio scales
Ratio scales indicate the total absence of the variable measured.
What are the three modalities of measurement?
Self-report, physiological, and behavioral
These modalities help define and measure constructs.
What type of data is usually preferred for most research situations?
Interval or ratio scale data
These scales allow hypothesis testing and produce meaningful values.
True or False: Ordinal measurements produce meaningful values for means and variances.
False
Ordinal measurements are not suitable for many commonly used hypothesis tests.
Fill in the blank: The categories of an ordinal scale are organized in a _______.
Ordered series
What is an example of a construct that cannot be directly observed?
Fear
Researchers measure external expressions of fear to evaluate it.
What problem arises in classifying IQ scores as interval or ordinal?
Uncertainty about the size of one point of IQ
The difference between scores may not be consistent across the scale.
What type of measurement scale is often used in rating scales from 1 to 5?
Ordinal scale
Even if they appear to have equal intervals, the distances between labels may not be equal.
What scale is used to rate the degree of agreement with statements?
A scale from 1 to 5
Labeled as Somewhat Strongly Agree, Somewhat Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.
What is the key difference between ordinal and interval scales?
Ordinal scales indicate direction of difference, while interval scales indicate direction and magnitude.
What is a nominal scale capable of indicating?
It can only indicate that a difference exists.
What does a ratio scale measure?
Direction, magnitude, and ratio of the difference.
How do researchers traditionally treat ambiguous scales like IQ scores?
As if they were from an interval scale.
What is the term for the problem when scores cluster at the high end of a scale?
Ceiling effect.
What is the term for the problem when scores cluster at the low end of a scale?
Floor effect.
What is an artifact in the context of a research study?
A nonnatural feature that may influence or distort measurements.
What is experimenter bias?
When a researcher unintentionally influences results based on their expectations.
What is one advantage of physiological measures?
They provide accurate and objective measurements.
What is a potential disadvantage of physiological measures?
They require expensive equipment and may create unnatural situations.
Fill in the blank: The _______ of measurement refers to the extent to which it can detect changes.
sensitivity
What is the primary advantage of self-report measures?
They provide direct insights from individuals about their own experiences.
What are behavioral measures?
Measures that observe and quantify overt behaviors.
Using a PET scan to measure brain activity is an example of what modality of measurement?
Physiological.
Using an anonymous questionnaire to determine how many times students send or receive text messages is an example of what modality of measurement?
Self-report.
Counting the number of times a student leaves their seat without permission is an example of which modality of measurement?
Behavioral.
What is the purpose of using multiple measures in research?
To obtain a more complete measure of a construct.
What does the term ‘range effect’ refer to?
Sensitivity problems when scores cluster at one end of a measurement scale.
True or False: Self-report measures are immune to distortion.
False.
What problem can arise from combining multiple measures?
Confusion in the interpretation of results if measures do not behave the same.
What is one way to limit problems associated with multiple measures?
Combine them into a single score for each individual.
What is the requirement for measuring time to detect subtle changes?
Time must be measured in units small enough to detect the change.
For example, if changes are expected to be 1/100 of a second, measuring in seconds may not suffice.
What is a single-blind research study?
A research study in which the researcher does not know the predicted outcome.
What is a double-blind research study?
A research study in which both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome.
Define demand characteristics in research studies.
Cues or features that suggest the purpose and hypothesis of a study, influencing participants’ behavior.
What is reactivity in the context of research studies?
When participants modify their natural behavior in response to awareness of being observed or measured.
What is experimenter bias?
When measurements in a study are influenced by the experimenter’s expectations or beliefs regarding the outcome.
List some ways an experimenter can influence participant behavior.
- Paralinguistic cues (tone of voice)
- Kinesthetic cues (body posture, facial expressions)
- Verbal reinforcement of responses
- Misjudgment of responses
- Errors in recording data.
What is the ceiling effect?
A situation where scores are so high that it prevents measuring improvement.
What is the purpose of standardizing or automating an experiment?
To limit personal contact between the experimenter and participant and reduce experimenter bias.
What is the difference between a laboratory setting and a field setting?
- Laboratory setting: Perceived as artificial
- Field setting: Perceived as a natural environment.
What factors should be considered when selecting a measurement procedure?
- Reliability and validity of past research
- Sensitivity of the measurement
- Scale of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
Define the good subject role in research participants.
Participants who identify the hypothesis and try to produce responses that support it.
What is the negativistic subject role?
Participants who identify the hypothesis and try to act contrary to it, often to sabotage the study.
What is the apprehensive subject role?
Participants who are overly concerned about how they are perceived and respond in socially desirable ways instead of truthfully.
What is the faithful subject role?
Participants who follow instructions carefully and avoid acting on any suspicions about the study’s purpose.
What is the impact of participant reactivity on research validity?
It can distort the measurements, leading to results that do not accurately reflect true behaviors.
How can researchers reduce the effects of reactivity?
- Observing participants in their natural environment
- Disguising the measurement process
- Reassuring participants about confidentiality.
What does it mean when participants are described as ‘naive’ in research?
Participants are unaware of the hypothesis or expected outcomes of the study.
What are the four scales of measurement?
- Nominal
- Ordinal
- Interval
- Ratio.
What additional information does an ordinal scale provide compared to a nominal scale?
Ordinal scale provides information about the order of the data.
What additional information does an interval scale provide compared to an ordinal scale?
Interval scale provides information about the magnitude of differences between data points.
What additional information does a ratio scale provide compared to an interval scale?
Ratio scale includes a true zero point, allowing for the comparison of absolute magnitudes.
Fill in the blank: A researcher might evaluate the reliability of a questionnaire by assessing _______.
[inter-rater reliability].
True or False: The faithful subject role is the ideal role for participants in research studies.
True.
What is a nominal scale?
A scale of measurement that classifies data into distinct categories without any order
Examples include gender, race, or types of fruits.
What is an interval scale?
A scale of measurement that has ordered categories with equal intervals between them, but no true zero point
Examples include temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
What is a ratio scale?
A scale of measurement that has ordered categories, equal intervals, and a true zero point
Examples include weight, height, and age.
What is an operational definition?
A specific procedure used to measure a variable, often necessary for intangible concepts
Operational definitions clarify how constructs are quantified.
What are the three modalities of measurement?
- Self-report
- Physiological
- Behavioral
What is the difference between self-report measures and behavioral measures?
Self-report measures rely on individuals’ accounts, while behavioral measures observe actual behavior
Self-reports can be biased, while behaviors may not always reflect internal states.
What is validity in measurement?
The extent to which a measure truly assesses the variable it claims to assess
Types of validity include face, concurrent, predictive, construct, convergent, and divergent validity.
Define reliability in measurement.
The consistency and stability of a measure over time
Reliability can be assessed through test-retest, inter-rater, and split-half methods.
What is concurrent validity?
The degree to which a new measure correlates with an established measure of the same construct
It is used to evaluate whether a new test is valid by comparing it with a known standard.
What is a ceiling effect?
A situation where a measurement instrument cannot detect differences at the high end of the scale
This can lead to underestimating the variability in scores.
What is a floor effect?
A situation where a measurement instrument cannot detect differences at the low end of the scale
This can obscure the true performance of participants.
What are demand characteristics?
Cues in an experiment that inform participants of the expected behavior, influencing their responses
Demand characteristics can lead to biased results if participants alter their behavior based on perceived expectations.
What is experimenter bias?
When a researcher’s expectations influence the outcomes of the study
This can be mitigated through double-blind research designs.
True or False: A valid measure is not necessarily reliable.
True
What is the purpose of using operational definitions?
To provide clarity and specificity in measuring intangible constructs
Operational definitions help in replicating research and ensuring consistency.
Fill in the blank: A _______ scale has ordered categories with equal intervals and a true zero point.
[ratio scale]
Describe the strengths of self-report measures.
- Easy to administer
- Can gather subjective data
- Cost-effective
Describe the weaknesses of behavioral measures.
- May not capture internal states
- Can be influenced by external factors
- More time-consuming to analyze
What is reactivity in research?
When participants alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed
This can affect the validity of the measurement.
What is a good subject role?
When participants try to provide results that align with the research hypothesis
This can lead to biased data if not managed properly.
What is a negativistic subject role?
When participants intentionally provide data that contradict the research hypothesis
This can skew results and complicate data interpretation.
