chap 13: prejudice

Question 1

Which of the following statements about prejudice is FALSE?

a. Everyone, no matter their origin, is a potential target of prejudice.
b. While our enemies regard us in distorted fashion, our allies perceive us without prejudice.
c. Prejudices exist for nationalities, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and aspects of appearance and health.
d. Prejudices tend to “cut both ways”; if we have prejudice about one group, they will have prejudices about us.

Answer 1

b

Question 2

________ refers to an attitude toward a distinguishable group of people based solely on their group membership.

a. Discrimination
b. Stereotyping
c. Racism
d. Prejudice

Answer 2

d

Question 3

According to your text, prejudice can be considered a(n)

a. attitude.
b. cognition.
c. belief.
d. estimation.

Answer 3

a

Question 4

Kevin only buys clothes made in America. He never buys clothes made in India or Pakistan. This demonstrates the ________ component of his attitude.

a. affective
b. behavioral
c. cognitive
d. disabling

Answer 4

b

Question 5

One reason why logical arguments often fail to change stereotypes is that they are emotion-based arguments. The other reason is that

a. attitudes are organized such that schema-consistent information is given more attention.
b. stereotypes are perpetuated so strongly in the news media.
c. people who are prejudiced tend to also have lower IQs.
d. stereotypes are usually ingrained since birth.

Answer 5

a

Question 6

Stereotypes are perpetuated in a culture. Thus, members of a culture may not believe the stereotypes, but most

a. will subscribe to them as adults.
b. will be aware of what the stereotypes are.
c. will use them to judge others.
d. have experiences that are in line with the stereotype.

Answer 6

b

Question 7

The term ________ was coined by journalist Walter Lippman (1922), who referred to these phenomena as “the little pictures we carry around in our heads.”

a. generalization
b. heuristics
c. prejudgments
d. stereotype

Answer 7

d

Question 8

Although psychologists usually refer to stereotypes only in a ________ sense, it is possible for a person to have a ________ stereotype about a particular group.

a. benign; destructive
b. positive; negative
c. negative; positive
d. specific; diffuse

Answer 8

c

Question 9

Shane believes that women are more dependent, more nurturing, more intuitive, and less rational than men. These are examples of Shane’s ________ women.

a. prejudice toward
b. stereotypes about
c. discrimination against
d. negative affect toward

Answer 9

b

Question 10

________ are generalizations about a group of people in which identical characteristics are ascribed to all members of the group, regardless of within-group variations.

a. Schemas
b. Stereotypes
c. In-group biases
d. Negative stereotypes

Answer 10

b

Question 11

When Gordon Allport (1954) described stereotyping as “the law of least effort,” he was suggesting that stereotypes arise

a. from personal experience.
b. to help us conserve cognitive energy.
c. at the service of the ego.
d. to justify objectionable actions quickly and easily.

Answer 11

b

Question 12

Stereotypes are beneficial to the extent that they

a. are selectively applied.
b. simplify a complex social world.
c. are reserved for ambiguous situations.
d. minimize differences within a group of people.

Answer 12

b

Question 13

A cashier at the store assumes that because his next customer is elderly, she will take a long time to pay. The cashier is using his stereotypes about the elderly and not taking the time or energy to carefully consider each customer in his line as an individual. His use of stereotypes best exemplifies Allport’s idea of

a. the contact hypothesis.
b. the law of least effort.
c. scapegoating.
d. natural prejudice.

Answer 13

b

Question 14

Alan just met Tina who is from a small rural town in the South. Alan believes that people from the South are narrow-minded, conservatively religious, and prudish. Tina, however, is none of these. What will Alan think?

a. His stereotype about southerners is incorrect.
b. Tina is an exception to his stereotype about southerners.
c. His stereotype needs revision.
d. His emotions about Tina aren’t appropriate.

Answer 14

b

Question 15

Researchers exposed participants to a twenty-minute audiotape of a college basketball game. In this research, “Mark Flick” was rated by participants as more athletic if the participants thought he was

a. Japanese.
b. White.
c. African American.
d. Hispanic.

Answer 15

c

Question 16

Some would argue that the stereotype that African Americans are athletic is flattering. Which of the following is one reason why it is abusive?

a. It is a gross overgeneralization.
b. It is denying White children the opportunity to play sports.
c. It implies that African Americans are built for hard labor.
d. It is a means of scapegoating.

Answer 16

a

Question 17

30. Which of the following is out of place?
    a. aggressive
    b. nurturing
    c. predatory
    d. cold

Answer 17

b

Question 18

One common stereotype about women that your text discusses is that they tend to be

a. aggressive.
b. better than men at throwing long distances.
c. more nurturing.
d. good at math.

Answer 18

c

Question 19

Both benevolent sexism and hostile sexism are alike in that they

a. put women on a pedestal.
b. idealize women romantically.
c. have uniformly negative views of women.
d. view women as the weaker sex.

Answer 19

d

Question 20

Tara’s boss always calls her “Miss,” but refers to his other employees by name. He also goes out of his way to hold open a door for her, and has asked her a number of times to bring in some of her fabulous cookies for the office. Tara is experiencing ________ sexism from her boss.

a. hostile
b. puerile
c. benign
d. benevolent

Answer 20

d

Question 21

Tina’s dad is a benevolent sexist. He’s most likely to approve of which of the following as Tina’s choice of major?

a. Law. He’s looking forward to her becoming a defense attorney.
b. Art. He wants her to continue making the world beautiful.
c. Chemistry. He would like for her to use her talents to make an incredible amount of money.
d. Criminal justice. He wants her to be the first female chief of police of their town.

Answer 21

b

Question 22

Gordon Allport wrote that “defeated intellectually, prejudice lingers emotionally.” What did he mean by that statement?

a. Deep-seated negative feelings may persist, even when a person knows consciously that a prejudice is wrong.
b. Emotions and thoughts contribute equally to prejudice.
c. Without stereotypes, emotions wouldn’t exist.

Answer 22

a

Question 23

According to some research, the degree of ________ prejudice has declined, but the degree of ________ prejudice keeps it alive under the surface.

a. implicit; explicit
b. explicit; implicit
c. benevolent; hostile
d. hostile; benevolent

Answer 23

a

Question 24

Discrimination is the ________ component of negative attitudes toward a group of people.

a. cognitive
b. pejorative
c. affective
d. behavioral

Answer 24

d

Question 25

Jessica isn’t invited to a Super Bowl party her coworkers are throwing because she’s a woman. Jessica is experiencing ________ from her coworkers.

a. discrimination
b. prejudice
c. hostile sexism
d. race-based exclusion

Answer 25

a

Question 26

Ken needs help with his algebra homework. He looks around the room at his new roommates and blurts out, “Hiro, you’re good at math, right? You can help me with my homework.” Because Hiro is Japanese American, Ken assumes he’s good at math. This represents a(n)

a. microaggression.
b. prejudice.
c. discrimination.
d. scapegoat.

Answer 26

a

Question 27

Researchers use a person’s reluctance to get too close to a person from another group as a measure of discrimination. This is known as

a. microaggression.
b. social distance.
c. ethnocentrism.
d. social identity.

Answer 27

b

Question 28

According to research presented in the chapter, people believe that female jobs require which of the following?

a. strength and smarts
b. intelligence and perseverance
c. height and resistance
d. kindness and nurturance

Answer 28

d

Question 29

Getting more women into science, technology, and engineering is a major goal for the U.S. A study (Hewlitt, Luce, & Servon, 2008) found that one of the main reasons that women left these jobs was which of the following?

a. being given too many job responsibilities
b. having too many other women coworkers
c. having too little structure to their schedules
d. being sexually harassed

Answer 29

d

Question 30

Researchers had participants look at photos of African American and white young men holding various objects in their hand. The participants’ job was to determine if the object in the hand was a gun or not, and to press a button labeled “shoot” if the object was a gun. This research demonstrated a greater likelihood to

a. press the button and “shoot” the black young men, regardless of what they were holding.
b. press the button and “shoot” the white young men, regardless of what they were holding.
c. not press the button at all and thereby be shot themselves.
d. press the button for every young man they saw.

Answer 30

a

Question 31

A popular research technique to identify the prejudices that people don’t want to admit is to send identical resumes to potential employers. A research team also created fake Facebook pages to represent some of those fake resumes. They found that

a. in liberal states, potential employers were less likely to give interviews to women.
b. in conservative states, potential employers were less interested in interviewing gay men or lesbians.
c. in conservative states, Muslim applicants were less likely to get an interview.
d. in liberal states, men were less likely to get an interview than women.

Answer 31

c

Question 32

The _______ is thought to measure unconscious prejudices according to the speed with which people can pair a target face with a positive or negative association.

a. Implicit Association Test
b. affective component
c. self-fulfilling prophecy
d. contact hypothesis

Answer 32

a

Question 33

60. On the Implicit Association Test, implicit attitudes are revealed by
    a. differences in response times to faces when paired with positive words as compared to faces when paired with negative words.
    b. examining the physical distances between individuals when they are interacting with one another.
    c. asking participants to predict their attitude toward gay men, lesbians, and other groups.
    d. changes in physiology revealed by the bogus pipeline.

Answer 33

a

Question 34

ome psychological scientists question the interpretations of the Implicit Association Test. Rather than revealing implicit bias, what else might the test be revealing?

a. explicit bias
b. overt behavior
c. discrimination
d. cultural stereotypes or associations

Answer 34

d

Question 35

Critics of the Implicit Association Test propose that the best way to validate the test is to observe people’s

a. emotions.
b. actual behavior.
c. hands while typing.
d. faces while taking the test.

Answer 35

b

Question 36

According to the authors, one nearly inevitable consequence of being the target of relentless prejudice is

a. genocide.
b. discrimination.
c. lower self-esteem.
d. rebellion.

Answer 36

c

Question 37

Researchers (Word, Zanna, & Cooper, 1974) tested the self-fulfilling prophecy as it relates to prejudice. They observed the differential behaviors of white interviewers who interviewed either African-American or white job candidates. They then trained other interviewers to manifest these two different interview styles. When the new interviewers later interviewed white job applicants, the applicants who were treated as African Americans in the first study

a. confronted the interviewers and terminated the conversation.
b. actually behaved in less effective and comfortable ways.
c. experienced a loss of self-esteem.
d. became more convinced that their initial negative expectations were confirmed.

Answer 37

b

Question 38

________ refers to the apprehension among minority group members that they might confirm to existing cultural stereotypes.

a. Performance ambivalence
b. Stereotype threat
c. Stereotypic anxiety
d. Evaluation apprehension

Answer 38

b

Question 39

In a series of experiments, Steele and Aronson (1995) had both African-American and white students at Stanford University take a verbal test. In one condition, the test was described as a valid measure of intelligence, and in the other condition, the test was described as neither a reliable nor valid measure of intelligence. In the former condition, African Americans performed more poorly than did white students because

a. African American students were overwhelmed by a fear of success.
b. African American students experienced stereotype threat.
c. White students were determined that African American students would not “outscore” them.
d. African American students shared the cultural stereotype.

Answer 39

b

Question 40

The underlying reason why stereotype threat can undermine the performance of members of a group with respect to some ability is that the experience of stereotype threat fosters

a. depression and low self-esteem.
b. anger and aggression.
c. evaluation apprehension.
d. the self-verification motive.

Answer 40

c

Question 41

In which of the following cases would stereotype threat NOT be likely to occur?

a. an African-American male taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of intellectual ability
b. a white female taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of mathematical ability
c. a white male taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of mathematical ability
d. a white male taking a difficult and presumably diagnostic test of mathematical ability in competition with a group of Asians

Answer 41

c

Question 42

Under which of the following conditions have white males shown signs of stereotype threat?

a. when taking a math test in a room with women
b. when taking a math test in a room with Asian Americans
c. when taking a standardized test in a room with women and ethnic minorities
d. when taking a physics exam in a room with Germans

Answer 42

b

Question 43

Thurgood Marshall is known as a former Supreme Court justice. Yet he made other important contributions to policies related to prejudice, including

a. proposing affirmative action policies.
b. the Emancipation Proclamation.
c. developing the Civil Rights Act.
d. arguing the case of Brown v. Board of Education.

Answer 43

d

Question 44

Prejudice may be maintained by ________ normative rules.

a. the rejection of
b. conformity to
c. the avoidance of
d. ignorance of

Answer 44

b

Question 45

Fiona isn’t really sure what to believe about Indian immigrants to England, but she knows what her parents and friends think. Because she is concerned with being accepted by these important people in her life, Fiona adopts their beliefs and feelings about this out-group. This example best illustrates ________ as a source of prejudicial attitudes.

a. informational conformity
b. competition for scarce resources
c. scapegoating
d. normative conformity

Answer 45

d

Question 46

Anecdotal evidence shows that African-American and white coal miners in the 1950s were completely segregated above ground and completely integrated below ground. In addition, most ministers in the 1950s supported desegregation but kept this support to themselves. These examples suggest the operation of ________ in prejudice.

a. stereotyping
b. conformity
c. competition
d. self-fulfilling prophecies

Answer 46

b

Question 47

The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his/her identification with a nation, religious, or political group, occupation, or other social affiliation is called a(n)

a. social identity.
b. personal identity.
c. self-fulfilling prophecy.
d. ethnocentrism.

Answer 47

a

Question 48

Amber considers herself outgoing, upbeat, and talented. She also defines herself as an American, a biologist, and a musician. The first three descriptors represent her _____, and the last three represent her _______.

a. personal identity; social identity
b. stereotypes; social identity
c. social identity; personal identity
d. personal identity; discriminator

Answer 48

a

Question 49

Brad believes that all Buddhists live more fulfilling lives, are happier, and have a more superior religious philosophy than any other religion or faith. This belief represents Brad’s

a. stereotype threat.
b. ethnocentrism.
c. implicit prejudice.
d. out-group homogeneity

Answer 49

b

Question 50

From a social cognitive perspective, the first step toward prejudice is

a. the categorization of people into groups.
b. the preference we give to in-groups.
c. our tendency to disparage out-groups.
d. identification with similar others.

Answer 50

a

Question 51

Which of the following statements about in-groups is true?

a. Almost any group can be an in-group.
b. We seldom identify with fellow members.
c. We are likely to compete with in-group members.
d. In-groups are always minimal groups.

Answer 51

a

Question 52

“Overestimators” versus “Underestimators,” blue eyes versus brown eyes, and tall versus short all represent meaningless criteria by which to

a. create in-groups and out-groups.
b. minimize the effects of group membership.
c. perpetuate stereotypes.
d. reduce prejudice.

Answer 52

a

Question 53

When a member of your in-group performs particularly well in a competition, you most likely

a. are depressed that you did not win.
b. experience a decrease in self-esteem.
c. experience no change in self-esteem; after all, you didn’t do anything.
d. experience an increase in self-esteem.

Answer 53

d

Question 54

In the United States, the statement, “I’m proud to be an American” exemplifies a(n)

a. in-group bias.
b. minimal group effect.
c. consequence of groupthink.
d. collective cognition.

Answer 54

a

Question 55

“Like them better.” “Give more rewards to them.” “Believe they are more pleasant.” All these describe

a. in-group members.
b. out-group members.
c. discriminations.
d. stereotypes.

Answer 55

a

Question 56

________ refers to our tendency to view members of ________ as more similar to one another than they really are.

a. In-group bias; our in-group
b. In-group heterogeneity; our in-group
c. Out-group homogeneity; an out-group
d. Out-group heterogeneity; an out-group

Answer 56

c

Question 57

Researchers showed rival Princeton and Rutgers students videotapes of decisions made by a male character. Half the time the character was allegedly from the participants’ university, and half the time, he was from the rival university. Participants then predicted what percentage of students at that university would make a decision similar to the target’s. In support of their “out-group homogeneity” hypothesis, Quattrone and Jones found that participants viewed one person’s behavior as predictive of his group when the

a. target was a member of the rival school.
b. behavior in the videotape matched stereotypes.
c. target was a member of the participants’ in-group.
d. behavior in the videotape was negative.

Answer 57

a

Question 58

Juliet is Jewish, and is going on a date with a Catholic. “Just don’t bring up abortion—you know all Catholics are pro-life,” cautions her sister. Juliet’s sister is exhibiting the bias known as

a. in-group favoritism.
b. out-group derogation.
c. discrimination.
d. out-group homogeneity.

Answer 58

d

Question 59

A person who believes in a just world would likely believe that a date-rape victim should

a. take counseling at a crisis center.
b. not date.
c. press charges against the alleged rapist.
d. have known her date better.

Answer 59

d

Question 60

Research has shown that when most people are confronted with evidence of an inequitable outcome that is difficult to explain, they will

a. revise their stereotypes.
b. blame the victim.
c. believe in a just world.
d. abandon their belief in a just world.

Answer 60

b

Question 61

Researchers provided college student participants with a description of a woman’s friendly behavior. In addition, some participants were told that the woman was raped by the man, whereas others were provided no such information. When participants judged the appropriateness of the woman’s behavior,

a. men in the “rape” condition engaged in victim blame, but the women didn’t.
b. participants in the “rape” condition judged the woman’s behavior as inappropriate.
c. only participants who believed in a just world blamed the victim.
d. female participants were better able to empathize with the rape victim.

Answer 61

b

Question 62

According to the justification-suppression model described by Crandall and Eshleman (2003) presented in your text, once a person is able to find valid justification for disliking a group, they are more likely to

a. refrain from acting on their prejudices.
b. act against those group members without cognitive dissonance.
c. behave in accordance with their egalitarian beliefs.
d. experience empathy for that group.

Answer 62

b

Question 63

________ posits that increased prejudice and discrimination result from limited resources and consequent intergroup conflict.

a. The self-fulfilling prophecy
b. Relative deprivation theory
c. Attribution theory
d. Realistic conflict theory

Answer 63

d

Question 64

Consider how realistic conflict theory has played a role in how Chinese immigrants were seen in the U.S. When they were competing with white miners during the gold rush, they were seen ________, but when they were helping construct the transcontinental railroad, they were seen ________.

a. favorably; unfavorably
b. neutrally; unfavorably
c. unfavorably; favorably
d. favorably; neutrally

Answer 64

c

Question 65

Recall that Sherif and his colleagues (1961) created conflict between two groups of boys in a summer camp. Intergroup hostility was relatively easy to generate. To do this, the researchers first ________ and then ________.

a. created out-group cohesiveness; initiated competitive games
b. created in-group cohesiveness; set up a series of competitive situations
c. created minimal groups; generated frustration by taking away desired objects
d. set up a series of competitive situations; created in-group cohesiveness

Answer 65

b

Question 66

According to the text, in Nazi Germany, the Jews were used as ________, much like how Rev. Jerry Falwell currently views homosexuals in the U.S.

a. scapegoats
b. victims
c. examples
d. hostages

Answer 66

a

Question 67

Amelia is trying hard to explain to Ricardo why women should not be restricted to the home. Even though Ricardo has no firm basis for his beliefs, Amelia’s logical arguments fail to persuade him in this case because

a. logical arguments rarely work on the emotional basis of attitudes.
b. Ricardo holds negative stereotypes about women, including Amelia.
c. Amelia’s arguments are too difficult to follow.
d. logical arguments rarely change sex-role stereotypes.

Answer 67

a

Question 68

Researchers presented participants with just one or two examples of information that strongly challenged their pre-existing stereotypes. These researchers found that, when presented with just one or two examples that challenge a strongly held stereotype, people

a. created new subtypes.
b. dismissed the new information and strengthened their stereotypic beliefs.
c. abandoned their stereotypes.
d. revised their stereotypes, as the bookkeeping model would predict.

Answer 68

b

Question 69

Researchers (Kunda & Oleson, 1997) presented people with one or two examples that countered people’s strongly held stereotypes and found that some people actually strengthened their belief in the stereotype when confronted with such disconfirmations. According to the researchers, this occurred because the people

a. simply ignored the evidence.
b. misperceived the evidence in line with their preconceptions.
c. were motivated by the counterexamples to find even more reasons why their belief held.
d. in the experiment were a clinical sample of sociopaths; this occurs only for this subgroup.

Answer 69

c

Question 70

One of your friends holds very negative stereotypes about Ugandans. Which of the following is the best way to change your friend’s stereotypes?

a. Give your friend a couple of examples of Ugandans who are good people.
b. Argue logically with your friend.
c. Tell your friend he or she is just wrong.
d. Give your friend many examples of great Ugandans—and some time.

Answer 70

d

Question 71

Designers of a new campus housing unit want to create an environment that helps reduce prejudice among the students. Which of the following would you suggest?

a. Assign all White students to one floor and all Hispanic students to another floor.
b. Create apartments and living suites that mix racial and ethnic groups.
c. Put some students in single-race living suites but encourage eating with other groups.
d. Encourage everyone to join ethnic student organizations.

Answer 71

b

Question 72

Research by Deutsch and Collins (1951) suggests that when residents of a segregated versus racially integrated housing project were surveyed after living there for several months, people who had lived in the integrated environment tended to

a. feel more prejudice than they had before.
b. feel less prejudice than they had before.
c. express less prejudice, but still feel it very strongly.
d. commit more discriminatory acts.

Answer 72

b

Question 73

Suppose that Herman is prejudiced toward members of Group A. Increasing Herman’s contact with Group A is most likely to reduce his prejudice if

a. he develops a friendship with one member of Group A, but never meets any other members of this group.
b. his basketball team often plays other teams that have lots of Group A members.
c. he volunteers to help build a house for Habitat for Humanity, and several of his coworkers are members of Group A. At the end of the day, he and all the other workers often go out to dinner together.
d. he gets a job with a company that hires lots of Group A members. Herman has a management position, whereas all of the Group A workers have lower status jobs.

Answer 73

c

Question 74

Recall that Sherif and his colleagues (1951) created conflict between two groups of boys in a summer camp. Once in-group cohesiveness was established, they set up a series of competitive situations such as tug-of-war and other competitive games. Conflict between the two groups escalated. Sherif and his colleagues were only successful in reducing conflict and hostility when

a. they brought the groups together in neutral situations.
b. leaders endorsed a truce between the two rival groups.
c. they constructed situations that fostered mutual interdependence.
d. groups were punished for behaving with hostility.

Answer 74

c

Question 75

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Hostility between two groups can be reduced by

a. having the two groups work together to achieve a common goal.
b. making sure that the two groups are of equal status.
c. having the groups interact in a formal setting with each group occupying half of the room.
d. making sure that it is clear that norms favor equality.

Answer 75

c

Question 76

Alice’s three children are driving her crazy. They are constantly squabbling, calling one another names, and generally tormenting one another. To preserve what’s left of her sanity, Alice has decided to try to convince the youngsters to get along. She promises them that she will take them to a funny movie if they will work together to clean their playroom in under thirty minutes. Which of the preconditions for reducing conflict does this illustrate?

a. one-on-one interactions between in-group and out-group members and an informal setting
b. the reduction of frustration and a common goal
c. a neutral setting and role differentiation
d. interdependence and a common goal

Answer 76

d

Question 77

142. Conditions under which contact situations reduce prejudice include
     a. biased attenuation, schematic interference, and hierarchical status.
     b. multiple contacts, interdependence, and equal status.
     c. stereotype suppression, enhanced independence, and positive affect.
     d. affective suppression, dependence, and repeated contact.

Answer 77

b

Question 78

Shawna (who is Mexican American) has recently been bussed into a school with predominantly white, middle-class students. Based on information from your text, why is she likely to have difficulty?

a. She is less intelligent than her classmates.
b. Her classmates are prejudiced against her.
c. The classroom of her new school isn’t exactly cooperative.
d. Her teacher will make a negative example of her.

Answer 78

c

Question 79

In the jigsaw classroom technique,

a. children work on jigsaw puzzles to foster cooperative interdependence.
b. lessons are structured so students’ only access to most of the information they will be tested on is from other students.
c. lessons are structured so each student works at his or her own pace and can feel a sense of mastery.
d. lessons are structured so that groups compete for small prizes to create incentives for learning.

Answer 79

b

Question 80

Many researchers have evaluated the effectiveness of cooperative learning techniques. Researchers such as Gaertner and his colleagues (1990) believe that one reason why such techniques work is that small, cooperative learning groups

a. break down in-group and out-group categories into a perception of a single group.
b. are more likely to follow egalitarian norms.
c. provide for contact between members of different racial and ethnic groups.
d. are more pleasant and thus reduce academic frustration.

Answer 80

a

Question 81

Researchers state that one reason the jigsaw classroom is effective is that it allows the individual to develop a category of “oneness.” By this he means that

a. everyone, without exception, is seen as part of a single group.
b. the individual sees himself as an individual separate from the group.
c. in-groups are seen as superior to out-groups, bolstering self-esteem.
d. out-groups are seen as a single, homogeneous unit separate from the in-group.

Answer 81

a

Question 82

Recall that Bridgeman (1981) conducted an experiment with ten-year-old children, half of whom had previously had two months’ experience in a jigsaw classroom. In this experiment, she showed the youngsters a cartoon in which a little boy waves goodbye to his father at the airport, receives a package from the postman, and bursts into tears upon finding out that it contains a toy plane. Children who had previously participated in the jigsaw classrooms were more likely to say that the postman would be confused at seeing the boy cry after receiving a present. This reflects the idea that jigsaw groups promote the development of

a. spatial skills.
b. self-esteem.
c. perspective-taking.
d. intelligence.

Answer 82

c