Chap 12 Problem Solving Flashcards
What is a problem ?
An obstacle between a present state and a goal
–Not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
–Difficult to solve
The Gestalt Approach
Problem solving is about?
Representing a problem in the mind
*Restructuring: changes the problem’s representation
Solving a problem is influenced by how it’s represented in a person’s mind
Restructuring
process of changing a problem’s representation, key mechanism of problem solving
Insight in Problem Solving
–A sudden realization of a problem’s solution that often requires restructuring the problem
Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987)
Insight: triangle problem, chain problem
–Non-insight: algebra
–Warmth judgments every 15 seconds
Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) findings
–Insight problems solved suddenly
–Non-insight problems solved gradually
Obstacles to Problem Solving
–Fixation: tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem
–Functional fixedness: restricting use of an object to its familiar functions
Candle problem
seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports
Two-string problem
function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight
Mental set
–A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
–Based on a person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)
–Water jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution
Newell and Simon
logic theorist computer program
Problem solving
search that occurs between posing of the problem and its solution
–Initial state: conditions at the beginning of a problem
–Goal state: solution of the problem
-Intermediate state: various conditions that exist along the pathways between initial and goal states
-Initial state -> intermediate states -> goal state : all make up the problem space
Tower of Hanoi
–Means–end analysis: reduce differences between initial and goal states
–Subgoals: create intermediate states closer to goal
Initial steps in solving the Tower of Hanoi problem, showing how the problem can be broken down into subgoals. (green discs)
Mutilated checkerboard problem(The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated)
–Conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares
–Easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem
The Russian marriage problem(Using Analogies to Solve Problems)
The Russian marriage problem (source problem) à mutilated checkerboard problem (target problem)
Analogical transfer
The transfer from one problem to another
Source problem to target problem
Duncker’s radiation problem
–Analogies aid problem solving
–Often hints must be given to notice connection
§Surface features get in the way
§Structural features must be used
Gick and Holyoak
(a) Solution to the radiation problem. Bombarding the tumor, in the center, with a number of low-intensity rays from different directions destroys the tumor without damaging the tissue it passes through.
–Analogical problem solving: (Gick and Holyoak)
–Noticing the relationship between source and target problem
–Mapping correspondence between source and target
–Applying mapping
Analogical paradox
–It can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world setting
–In vivo problem-solving research
–People are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world
§Advantage: naturalistic setting
§Disadvantages: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables
What is an expert?
–Experts solve problems in their field more quickly and with a higher success rate than beginners
–Experts possess more knowledge about their fields
*Experts spend more time analyzing problem
–Spend time understanding the problem rather than immediately solving it
Creative Problem Solving
–Creativity
–Innovative thinking
–Novel ideas
–New connections between existing ideas
Divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential “solutions
Basadur et al. (2000)
Basadur proposes four steps, each of which is divided into two processes. For example, Stage II, problem formulation, consists of two steps: defining the problem and finding ideas
Creative cognition
technique to train people to think creatively
Preinventive forms
ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
Chi and Snyder (2012)
Deactivated left anterior temporal lobe causing people to think “outside the box” in nine-dot problem
–Kounios and coworkers (2006): “The Prepared Mind”
–Used EEG on compound remote-associate problem
–Frontal lobe activity increased before insight solutions
Occipital lobe activity increased before noninsight solutions
Default mode network(Incubation)
getting ideas after taking “time out” from working on a problem
Mayseless and coworkers (2015)
–Participants suggest alternate uses for an object
–Higher originality ratings associated with higher activity of structures in default mode network
Ellamil et al. (2012)
–Regions of default mode network (DMN) and executive control network (ECN) more strongly activated during idea evaluation than idea generation
–Normally DMN and ECN work in opposition
§Creative thinking is different.
Things Creative People Do Differently
–Daydreaming
–Volitional daydreaming: purposeful mind wandering
–Solitude
–Avoiding distractions; giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning
–Mindfulness
–Focused attention meditation: focus on one thing, such as the breath, and return to it when distracted
–Open monitoring meditation: pay attention to whatever comes up and follow it until the next thing
