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Challenge Of Natural Hazards Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a ‘natural hazard’?

A

A natural event (for example earthquake, volcanic eruption, tropical storm, flood) that threatens people or has the potential to cause damage, destruction and death.

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2
Q

What is hazard risk?

A

Hazard risk is the chance or probability of being affected by a natural event

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3
Q

List some examples of natural hazards (and their category if you can)

A

Tectonic hazards (e.g. earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption)
Atmospheric hazards (e.g. hurricanes)
Geomorphological hazards (e.g flooding)
Biological hazards (e.g. forest fires)

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4
Q

What factors affect hazard risk?

A
  1. Poverty - poorer places will struggle to adequately prepare for a hazard or be able to respond.
  2. Magnitude - the severity of the hazard will make the impacts worse
  3. Population density - areas that have high populations will experience more destruction.
  4. Education - how educated the population are to react and prepare for the hazard
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5
Q

Describe the structure of the earth starting from the outermost layer?

A

OUTERMOST: 1. Crust - the outermost layer of the Earth, broken into tectonic plates.
2. Mantle - semi-molten part of the Earth.
3. Outer core - liquid iron and nickel

CENTRE: 4. Inner core - solid iron and nickel

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6
Q

What causes the plates to move?

A

Convection currents in the mantle

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7
Q

What are convection currents?

A

Circulating movements of magma in the mantle caused by the heat of the core

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8
Q

Describe the global distribution of earthquakes?

A

Earthquakes occur in lines which coincide with plate margins. There are many along the western coast of North and South America.

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9
Q

Describe the global distribution of volcanic eruptions.

A

Volcanoes are found both on land and in the sea. They tend to be found along plate margins. Some volcanoes are found in the centre of plates. These are known as hot spots. There is a large band of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean known as the Ring of Fire.

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10
Q

What is oceanic crust?

A

The part of the Earth’s crust which is below the oceans.

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11
Q

What is continental crust?

A

The part of the Earth’s crust that makes the continents

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12
Q

What is the difference between oceanic and continental crust?

A
  • Oceanic crust is thinner (5-10km thick) and more dense than continental crust.
  • Oceanic crust is recycled at destructive margins as it subducts under the continental crust.
  • Continental crust is thicker (20-200km thick) and is less dense than oceanic crust.
  • Continental crust cannot be destroyed.
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13
Q

What is a conservative plate margin?

A

A plate margin where the tectonic plates are sliding past each other

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14
Q

What is a constructive plate margin?

A

A plate margin where the tectonic plates are moving apart

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15
Q

What is a destructive plate margin?

A

A plate margin where an oceanic and a continental plate collide.

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16
Q

What are tectonic hazards?

A

Threats posed by earthquakes, volcanoes etc

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17
Q

What is subduction?

A

The transformation into magma of a denser tectonic plate as it dives under a less dense plate

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18
Q

Define ‘epicentre’?

A

The point on the ground directly above the focus (centre) of the earthquake

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19
Q

Define ‘focus’?

A

The point of origin of an earthquake

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20
Q

Define ‘magnitude’?

A

The size of an earthquake

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21
Q

What is an ocean trench?

A

A deep depression on the ocean floor formed at the subduction zones of destructive plate margins

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22
Q

What are tectonic plates?

A

The large pieces of broken crust that cover the earth

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23
Q

What is a plate margin?

A

The boundary between two tectonic plates

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24
Q

What are primary effects?

A

The impacts of a natural disaster that happen immediately or soon after the event

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25
Q

Define response?

A

The way in which people react to a situation eg. an earthquake

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26
Q

What are secondary effects?

A

The after effects of a disaster eg. disease spreads or economic losses

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27
Q

Define ‘tsunami’?

A

Huge waves caused by earthquakes under the sea

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28
Q

List two characteristics of an oceanic crust

A
  • 5-10 km thick
  • Dense
  • Destroyed at destructive plate margins
  • Forms constantly at constructive plate margins
  • Geologically young compared to continental crust
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29
Q

List two characteristics of a continental crust

A
  • 20-200km thick
  • Less dense (than oceanic)
  • Cannot be destroyed. New crust is not formed
  • It is geologically old 3-4 billion years old
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30
Q

What is an earthquake?

A

Earthquakes are vibrations in the Earth’s crust that create shaking at the surface. They are highly unpredictable and often occur suddenly without warning, mainly on the plate margins

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31
Q

Do earthquakes happen on all four plate boundaries?

A

Yes

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32
Q

Why do earthquakes happen?

A
  • Earthquakes occur because stresses build up between the plates as one plate passes another.
  • As the plates move past one another they don’t do so smoothly, rather, they snag and grind, allowing energy to build up.
  • When the plates eventually move again this energy is released as shock or seismic waves through the Earth’s crust.
  • The point at which the earthquake is occurring is called the focus.
  • The point above this on the surface of the earth is called the epicentre.
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33
Q

List two characteristics of a composite volcano?

A
  • Made up of alternating layers of lava and ash (other volcanoes just consist of lava)
  • Found at destructive boundaries
  • Often has pyroclastic flows. A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust
  • A pyroclastic flow can roll down the sides of a volcano at very high speeds and with temperatures of over 400°C
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34
Q

List two characteristics of a shield volcano?

A
  • Shield volcanoes are usually found at constructive or tensional boundaries
  • They are low, with gently sloping sides
  • They are formed by eruptions of thin, runny lava
  • Eruptions tend to be frequent but relatively gentle
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35
Q

Can we predict volcanic eruptions and earthquakes?

A
  • Volcanoes - Yes
  • Earthquakes - No
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36
Q

List some reasons why people live in areas at risk from tectonic hazards?

A
  • Fertile farmland on volcanic soil (environmental)
  • Income from tourism (economic)
  • Lack of other alternatives (social)
  • Mining precious minerals (socio-economic)
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37
Q

How do we measure the size of the earthquake?

A

Richter Scale - Measured from 1-9

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38
Q

At which plate margin can earthquakes occur?

A

All plate margins (constructuve, destructive and conservative)

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39
Q

At which plate margin can volcanoes occur?

A

Shield volcanoes form at constructive margins

Composite volcanoes form at destructive margins

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40
Q

Describe the primary effects of the Nepal earthquake

A
  • 9,000 deaths
  • 20,000 people injured
  • 3 million without a home
  • US$5 billion of damage
  • 50% shops destroyed
  • Airport became congested as aid arrived
  • Schools and buildings destroyed
  • 1.4 million people needed food and water days after the quake
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41
Q

Describe the secondary effects of the Nepal earthquake

A
  • Ground shaking triggered landslides and avalanches, blocking roads, making relief difficult
  • Avalanches killed 19 people
  • A landslide blocked the Kali Gandaki River - causing risk of flood.
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42
Q

Describe the primary effects of the L’Aquila earthquake

A
  • 300 people were killed
  • 1,500 were injured
  • Hospitals damaged
  • 67,000 homeless
  • 10,000 buildings collapsed (including medieval buildings and monuments, univeristies and hospitals)
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43
Q

Describe the secondary effects of the L’Aquila earthquake

A
  • Aftershocks triggered landslides
  • L’Aquila University student numbers reduced
  • House prices increased
  • Some areas were so unsafe they were declared as ‘red zones’ which has led to a decrease in business and tourism
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44
Q

Describe the immediate responses to the L’Aqulia earthquake

A
  • Hotels (and some train carriages) provided shelter for 10,000 people.
  • Italian Red Cross searched for survivors.
  • The British Red Cross raised £170,000 in aid.
  • A state of emergency was declared which which sped up international aid efforts.
  • The EU donated US$550 million to help with rebuilding costs
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45
Q

Describe the immediate responses to the Nepal earthquake

A
  • Other countries helped in search and rescue and provided medical supplies.
  • Helicopters rescued people caught in the avalanche on Mount Everest.
  • Half a million tents needed to provide shelter for the homeless
  • Field hospitals were set up to alleviate pressure on hospitals.
  • 300,000 people migrated from Kathmandu
  • Social media helped to map damage of area
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46
Q

Describe the long term responses to the Nepal earthquake?

A
  • Roads repaired and landslides cleared.
  • Lakes, formed by landslides damming rivers, were emptied to avoid flooding.
  • Homeless were re-housed.
  • School to be re-built or repaired.
  • Reopening of some heritage sites to boost tourism.
  • Everest Base camp repaired
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47
Q

Describe the long term responses to the L’Aquila earthquake?

A
  • Residents did not have to pay tax during 2010.
  • University students were given free public transport, discounts on educational equipment and were exempt from university fees for 3 years.
  • Years of rebuilding homes
  • Approx 15 years to rebuild historic centres.
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48
Q

Describe what is meant by ‘monitoring’ tectonic hazards?

A

Using scientific equipment to detect warning signs of events such as a volcanic eruption

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49
Q

What is meant by ‘prediction’?

A

Using evidence and monitoring information to make a judgement about when an earthquake or volcano is likely to happen.

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50
Q

What is meant by tectonic hazard ‘protection’?

A

Designing buildings to withstand tectonic hazards

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51
Q

What is meant by ‘planning’ for tectonic hazards?

A

Identifying places at risk or tectonic hazards and ensuring people know what to do in the event of an earthquake/volcano.

51
Q

Give examples of monitoring tectonic hazards

A

Volcanoes
satellites & laser beams detect changes to the volcano shape
increasing amounts of gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are given off before an eruption
Earthquakes
* there is no reliable way of monitoring and predicting earthquakes.

52
Q

Give examples of how to predict tectonic hazards?

A

Volcanoes & Earthquakes

  • It is incredibly difficult to accurately predict an earthquake or volcanic eruption
53
Q

Give examples of how to plan for tectonic hazards?

A

Volcanoes & Earthquakes

  • Identify areas at risk and don’t build on these areas
  • Plan to evacuate high risk areas
54
Q

Give examples of how to protect against tectonic hazards?

A

Volcanoes
Divert lava away from built up areas by using explosives
Earthquakes
Reinforced foundations
Shock absorbers to absorb ground shaking
Automatic shutters to cover windows preventing shattering glass
Rolling weights on roof to counteract shock waves

54
Q

Define ‘weather’?

A

The day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere.

55
Q

Define ‘climate’?

A

The long-term average of weather conditions

56
Q

What is global atmospheric ciruclation?

A

The circular movements of the Earth’s atmosphere. The cirular movements of air are known as cells. These cells all join together to form the overall circulation of the Earth’s atmosphere.

56
Q

Name the 3 main cells in the global atmospheric circulation model?

A
  • Hadley Cell
  • Ferrell Cell
  • Polar Cell
57
Q

What is high pressure and where on the global atmospheric cirulation model would you find high pressure?

A

When air sinks towards the ground, high pressure is formed.

It happens at 30°N and 30°S of the equator, 90°N (North Pole) and 90°S (South Pole) of the equator

58
Q

What is low pressure and where on the global atmospheric cirulation model would you find high pressure?

A

When air is rising from the surface of the ground, low pressure is formed.

It happens at 0° (the equator), 60°N and 60°S of the equator

59
Q

Where do surface winds blow from and to?

A

Winds blow from high pressure areas to low pressure areas

60
Q

Describe what happens in the Hadley Cell?

A

Warm air rises at the equator, travels North and South and sinks around 30°N and 30°S. It then travels back to the equator

61
Q

Describe what happens in the Ferrell Cell

A

Warm air rises at 60°N and 60°S equator, back towards the equator. Cool air sinks at 30°N and 30°S of the equator.

62
Q

Describe what happens in the Polar Cell?

A

Cool air decends at 90°N (north pole) and 90°S (south pole) then the air moves back towards the equator.

63
Q

What is a tropical storm?

A

Tropical storms are also known as hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones. They are huge storms that form between the tropics.

64
Q

Describe the global distribution of tropical storms

A
  • In a band around the equator
  • Within the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn
  • They are rare in the South Atlantic
65
Q

Why do tropical storms form between the tropics?

A
  • The ocean temperatures are warm enough (27°C)
  • There is enough intense heating of the ocean to cause warm air to rise rapidly.
  • They don’t form directly over the equator as there isn’t enough of an impact of the earth’s rotation to cause the storm to spin so they form 5°-15° north and south of the equator.
66
Q

Tropical storms in the North Atlantic region are known as?

A

Hurricanes

67
Q

Tropical storms in south-east Asia and Australia are known as?

A

Cyclones

68
Q

Tropical storms in Japan and the Philiippines are known as?

A

Typhoons

69
Q

What are the conditions required for a tropical storm to form?

A
  • Warm water (above 27°C)
  • Deep water
  • Within the tropical zone
  • No jet stream present
70
Q

Which force causes tropical storms to spin?

A

Coriolis

71
Q

How are tropical storms measured?

A

On the Saffir-Simpson scale of wind speeds.

Category 1: 74-95mph

Category 2: 96-110mph

Category 3: 111-129mph

Category 4: 130-156mph

Category 5: 157mph+

72
Q

What are conditions like the the eye of a tropical storm?

A

Calm

73
Q

Which part of a tropical storm has the most severe winds?

A

Eye wall

74
Q

How wide can tropical storms be?

A

Up to 300km

75
Q

Describe the sequence of events when a tropical storm passes over?

A
  1. Temperature and air pressure fall
  2. Air pressure falls more, wind increases, lots of cumulonimbus cloud, heavy rainfall
  3. Calm, no wind, no rain, gets slightly warmer, air pressure still very low (EYE OF THE STORM)
  4. Wind and heavy rainfall increase dramatically again, temperature drops, air pressure begins to rise
  5. Tropical storm ends, air pressure and temperature rise
76
Q

Describe the formation of a tropical storm?

A
  1. Warm wet air from the warm ocean rises. As it cools and condenses it creates huge cumulonibus clouds.
  2. As the warm, wet air is rising, it creates an area of low pressure near the ocean surface. Warm air from outside the storm is sucked in to fill this ‘space’ creating a constant upwelling of warm, moist air to power the storm.
  3. Air leaves the spiralling column in the centre of the storm out of the top and flows downwards to the side of the storm.
77
Q

Describe the features of a tropical storm?

A
  • Up to 300 miles wide
  • Wind speeds up to 252km/h and above
  • Thunder and lightning, strong winds at the eye wall
78
Q

Describe the primary effects of Typhoon Haiyan?

A
  • 6,300 deaths
  • 600,000 people forced to leave their homes
  • 30,000 fishing boats destroyed
  • 90% of city of Taclocan destroyed
  • Tacloban airport severely damaged
  • Infrastructure destroyed by winds
  • Flooding
79
Q

Describe the secondary effects of Typhoon Haiyan?

A
  • 6 million lost jobs
  • Flooding caused landslides, blocking roads meaning aid was hindered
  • Power cut off
  • Difficulty receiving aid as a result of damaged infrastructure
  • Outbreaks of disease due to poor sanitation and shortages of shelter and - water.
  • Looting and violence broke out
80
Q

Describe the immediate responses to Typhoon Haiyan?

A
  • Aid agencies donated food, water and shelter quickly
  • US aircrafts helped with search and rescue
  • 1,200 evacuation centres were set up
  • The UK provided Shelter Boxes which provided equipment to set up make-shift homes
  • The Philippines Red Cross delivered basic food packages
81
Q

Describe the long term responses to Typhoon Haiyan?

A
  • Infrastructure was rebuilt e.g. bridges and airport
  • Charities helped to replace fishing boats which is a crucial source of income for many citizens
  • ‘Cash for Work’ programmes paid people to clean up debris
  • Homes rebuilt away from flood prone areas
  • Rice farming was quickly restored to ensure food production and a source of income
82
Q

How are tropical storms monitored and predicted?

A
  • Predicting the track of a tropical storm is very difficult.
  • Satellite images are used to identify the distinct pattern of clouds associated with tropical storms forming over the ocean.
  • Aircrafts can be used to monitor conditions within tropical storms.
  • In the USA, ‘Hurricane Watch’ advises that hurricane conditions are likely. ‘Hurricane Warning’ is issued when people should take action e.g. evacuate.
83
Q

How do people protect themselves from tropical storms?

A
  • Secure outdoor furniture to the ground
  • Cut own tree branches to avoid property damage
  • Window shutters
  • Buildings built on stilts to prevent storm surge damage
  • Storm drains in urban areas removed large amounts of water from storm surges
  • Sea walls built to hold back some water from storm surges
84
Q

How do people plan for tropical storms?

A

Increasing citizens awareness and knowledge of what to do in the event of a tropical storm

e.g. family evacuation plans / emergency kits

Educating people on the dangers of tropical storms and how best to prepare.

85
Q

How might climate change affect tropical storm distributon, frequency and intensity?

A

Distribution: More tropical storms may happen outside of the current areas as sea temperatures increase.

Frequency: frequency may decrease

Intensity: increase intensity of tropical storms

86
Q

What kinds of weather hazards affect the UK?

A
  • Flooding
  • Storms
  • Drought
  • Extreme heat / cold
87
Q

What caused the Somerset floods?

A
  • 350mm of rain fell in January and February (100mm above average)
  • A series of storms hit the area
  • High tides and storm surges swept water upstream, preventing water reaching the sea
  • Rivers hadn’t been dredged for 20 years so were filled with sediment.
88
Q

Describe the social effects of the Somerset floods?

A
  • 16 farms evacuated
  • 600 houses flooded
  • Residents evacuated for several months
  • Difficult for people to get to work/school
  • Power cuts
89
Q

Describe the economic effects of the Somerset flood?

A
  • Damage estimated at £10 million
  • Over 14,000 hectares of farmland was flooded for 1 month
  • 1,000 livestock evacuated
  • Floods cut off villages
90
Q

Describe the environmental effects of the Somerset flood

A
  • Large amounts of rubble and debris had to be cleared
  • Floodwaters were contminated with sewage
  • Stagnant water had to be reoxingenated before being pumped back into rivers
91
Q

What were the responses to the Somerset floods?

A
  • Immediate:
    Local residents volunteered help
    People used boats to go get to work/school
  • Long term:
    £20million Flood Action Plan was set up to:
    Dredge the Rivers Tone and Parratt
    River banks raised
    Road levels raised
    Flood defences in flood-risk areas
    More pumping stations built.
92
Q

What is the evidence that weather in the UK is becoming more extreme?

A

A
- Heatwaves - 2003
- Floods - 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013-14, 2015-16
- Heavy snow - 2009, 2010, 2017

93
Q

What is climate change?

A

The long term change in global weather patterns

94
Q

What is the evidence that climate has changed since the beginning of the Quaternary period?

A

Over the past 2.6 million years (the quaternary period) gloal temperatures have fluctuated but have overall gradually declined.

During the last 400,000 years, there have been noticable glacial (cooler periods) and interglacial (warmer periods).

The the last few decades, temperatures have increased above average, known as global warming

Since 1880, global temperatures have increased by 0.85°C

95
Q

What is the evidence for historical climate change?

A

Ice cores have been able to identify changes from up to 400,000 years ago.

Huge drills drill down into ice sheets to remove a cylinder of ice. A slice of this ice contains bubbles of carbon dixoide. As carbon dioxide absrobs heat in the atmosphere, the more bubbles evident, the warmer the temperatures were.

96
Q

What is the recent evidence for climate change?

A
  • Shrinking glaciers
  • Rising sea levels (due to melting ice and thermal expansion)
  • Seasonal changes (ie. migrating birds, nesting patterns)
97
Q

Name the 3 natural causes of climate change?

A
  1. Orbital changes (Milankovitch Cycles)
  2. Solar Activity
  3. Volcanic Activity
98
Q

How does solar activity cause climate change?

A

Over a period of 11 years, sunspots increase and decrease on the sun. These sunspots appear as dark patches. The more sunspots, the more solar radiation given. This coincides with warmer periods.

99
Q

How does orbital theory cause climate change?

A

Eccentricity (orbit). The arth’s orbit changes from a cirular to ellipitcal orbit. During a ellipitcal (oval shaped) orbit, the sun and earth at their biggest distance, causing cooler periods than during a circular orbit. This coincides with glacial and intergalcial periods)

Precession (wobble) - the earth has a natural wobble (like a spinning top). Due to this, places facing away from the Sun experience longer days and nights at certain points of the year

Axial tilt - the earth spins on its axis. The earths axis tilts backwards and forwards over a period of 41,000 years.

100
Q

How does volcanic activity cause climate change?

A

When a volcanic erupts, it emits large amounts of gas and ash into the atmosphere. This can temporarily block out the suns radiation which causes temporary cooling. This is known as a ‘volcanic winter’.

101
Q

What is the greenhouse effect?

A

The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap some solar radiation entering the atmosphere. Some long wave radiation is absorbed by earth, some escapes back out to space. This is a natural process which keeps Earth at an optimum temperature for life on Earth to survice.

102
Q

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

A

The thickening of the greenhouse gas layer, which traps more heat in the atmosphere. It is caused by human actions that release more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

103
Q

Name the greenhouse gases

A
  1. Carbon dioxide
  2. Methane
  3. Sulphur dioxide
  4. Nitrous oxide
  5. Water vapour
104
Q

Which human activities are releasing nitrous oxides?

A
  • Car exhausts
  • Agricultural fertilisers
  • Power stations
105
Q

Which human activity is releasing carbon dioxide (C02)?

A

A
- Burning fossil fuels in industry
- Car exhausts
- Deforestation

106
Q

Which human activity is releasing Methane?

A
  • Decaying organic matter
  • Rice farming
  • Livestock
  • Biomass burning
107
Q

Name a physical impact of climate change?

A
  • Sea level rise
  • Drought
  • Storms
108
Q

Explain how agriculture contributes to climate change?

A

Farming produces large amounts of methane through cattle digestion and through the rice farming.

Cattle farming has increased as the world’s population has increased, and more people around the world demand meat in their diets.

109
Q

Explain how deforestation causes climate change?

A

Trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. By removing more trees we are removing the ability for trees to take out CO2. As a result, CO2 levels increasing. Increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere means more heat is trapped. Trees are being cut down to make space for road building and farming.

110
Q

Explain how burning fossil fuels leads to climate change?

A

Burning fossil fuels gives off huge quantities of CO2 which is a gas that absorbs heat in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels are increasingly used in manufacturing, transportation and heating homes.

111
Q

Name some of the effects of climate change on the environment?

A
  • warmer waters may decrease marine wildlife
  • 70% of Asia may be at increased risk of flooding
  • increasing temperatures and decreasing soil moisture can reduce biodiversity in the rainforest
  • less sea ice could open up new oil and gas reserves
112
Q

Name some of the effects of climate change on people?

A
  • health may decline due to increased levels of malaria in Africa
  • heatwaves in Europe can kill the vulnerable
  • crop yields may fall causing famines or job losses
  • skiing resorts may close due to shorter skiing seasons
113
Q

What is climate change mitigation?

A

Establishing strategies to combat climate change and try to prevent or reverse it

114
Q

What is climate change adaptation?

A

Implementing strategies to defend communities from the impacts of climate change

115
Q

Name the international treaties/agreements that attempt to mitigate climate change and give details of what they do

A

Kyoto Protocol - countries pledging to reduce their carbon emissions.

Copenhagen Accord - pledging financial support to developing countries to help them tackle to effects of climate change.

Paris Agreement - 195 countries agreed with tackle climate change (i.e. to keep global temperature increase below 2ºc.)

116
Q

Name 4 mitigation strategies

A
  1. Altenative energies
  2. Carbon capture
  3. Planting Trees
  4. International agreements
117
Q

Name 3 adaptation strategies?

A
  1. Changing agricultural systems
  2. Managing water supplies
  3. Reducing risk from rising sea levels
118
Q

Describe how planting trees can mitigate agaisnt climate change?

A

Trees remove CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. By planting trees, excess CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere.

119
Q

Describe how alternative energy production can mitigate against climate change?

A
120
Q

Describe how carbon capture helps to mitigate agaisnt climate change?

A

Carbon capture is a process by which carbon is captured, compressed and stored underground. This can remove almost 90% of the CO2 that could otherwise enter the atmosphere.

121
Q

Explain how changing agricultural systems can adapt against the effects of climate change?

A
  1. planting drought resistant crops
  2. changing the the time of planting
  3. introducing shades to shield crops from sun
    educating farmers on new farming techniques
122
Q

Explain how managing water supplies can adapt against the effects of climate change?

A

Collecting and storing water at different seasons can reduce water lost during higher temperatures e.g. In India, collecting glacial water during the winter and it freezes, storing water for summer months.

123
Q

Explain how reducing the risk from rising sea levels can adapt against the effects of climate change?

A
  1. Constructing sea walls to hold back rising waters
  2. Building houses on stilts
  3. Restoring mangroves to reduce the impact of storm waves
  4. Relocating most vulnerable to new places or higher ground.

geography paper 1 (8 decks)

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