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ch 7 and 8 psych 289 > ch8 > Flashcards

ch8 Flashcards

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1
Q

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge

A

Cognition

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2
Q

What are the 4 key properties of human language

A

generative, symbolic, structured, semantic

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3
Q

What is an example of recursion in sentences?

A

Making things short, like mary threw the ball

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4
Q

what are phonemes

A

Phenomes - the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually

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5
Q

give an example of a phoneme

A

An easier way to show that you are referring to a phoneme (not a letter) is to simply use the convention of placing common letters within forward slashes (/__/) to note that it is a phoneme, and then provide an example word to clarify which phoneme you mean. For example:
/ch/ “chalk”
/f/ “phone”
/a/ “cat”
/sh/, /u/, /n/ “motion”

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6
Q

Do languages use all of the available phonemes that humans can produce and hear

A

No - couldn’t find in book but found online

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7
Q

How many phonemes are used in the English language?

A

English language composed of about 40 phonemes, corresponding to roughly 26 letters of hte alphabet plus some variations

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8
Q

Why are there only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet (as based on the Roman alphabet)? How do so few letters still allow English to be written, given the number of phonemes?

A

A letter in the alphabet can represent more than one phoneme, if it has more than one pronunciation and some phonemes are represented by combos of letters, such as ch and th.

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9
Q

What does the semantics of a language refer to, and how are morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences involved in it?

A

Semantics is the area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations . Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in language. Each of the morphemes contributes to the meaning of the entire word. A words meaning may consist of both its denotation and its connotation which includes its emotional overtones and secondary implications bg 281

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10
Q

Give some Root Word Examples and Words Derived from It

A

govern governor, government
Friend friendly friendship
origin, originally, origination

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11
Q

write some examples of simple prefixes (for example, “un-”) and suf ixes (for example, “-ly”)

A

unfriendly
Uncaringly
Understandably

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12
Q

What is a homophone

A

each of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings, origins, or spelling, for example new and knew.
“homophones can cause confusion and people often use the wrong one in error” like their, there and they’re

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13
Q

What is a homograph?

A

each of two or more words spelled the same but not necessarily pronounced the same and having different meanings and origins. like tear and tear (rhymes with air or other meaning rhymes with fear)

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14
Q

What does the syntax of a language include?

A

Syntax is a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences. A simple rule of syntax is that a sentences must have both a subject and a verb.

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15
Q

How is the order of words in a sentence an example of syntax, and how does order also relate to the meaning of a sentence (semantics)?

A

Order of words is an example of syntax because the order creates the meaning, for example putting an article before the word, english speakers know we say the swimmer, not swimmer the

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16
Q

At what age does babbling start?

A

6-18 months babbling, verbalizes in response to the speech of others; responses increasingly approximate human speech patterns

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17
Q

Name the age: reflexive communication: vocalizes randomly , coos, laughs, cries, engages in vocal play, discriminates language from nonlanguage sounds

A

1-5 months

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18
Q

Name the age: First words, use words, typically refers to objects

A

10-13 months

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19
Q

Name the age: one word sentence stage: vocab grows slowly, uses nouns primarily, overextensions begin

A

18-24 months

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20
Q

What age do children use two-word sentences stage, use telegraphic speech, uses more pronouns and verbs

A

age 2

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21
Q

Name the age: three word sentence stage

A

2.5

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22
Q

Name the age: uses complete simple active sentence structure, uses sentences to tell stories that are understand by others, uses plurals

A

3

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23
Q

name the age: uses five-word sentences

A

4

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24
Q

name the age: well-developed and complex syntax; uses more complex syntax uses more complex forms to tell stories

A

5

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25
Q

name the age:displays metalinguistic awareness

A

6

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26
Q

What is manual babbling?

A

babies babbling with their hands (a study on deaf babies) at the same milestone of development

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27
Q

At what age are a child’s first words typically produced?

A

10-13 months

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28
Q

What are some examples of one or two word sentences at the 12-18 month old stage?

A

banana, or juice while reaching toward a cup, mama up while reaching up for a parent; tend to use sounds while gesturing

29
Q

Why is early speech often called telegraphic speech?

A

Telegraphic speech consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions and other less critical words are omitted. Thus a child might say give doll rather than please give me the doll

30
Q

What evidence demonstrates that children have much larger receptive vocabularies than productive vocabularies? What does this imply about language learning and use?

A

Toddlers typically can say between 3 and 50 words by 18 mo. but their receptive vocab is larger than their productive vocab. That is, they can understand more words spoken by others thanthey can actually produce to express themselves.
Language learning happens rapidly , something called fast mapping occurs: the process by which children maps word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure

31
Q

At what age does a vocab spurt usually occur?

A

18-24 mo

32
Q

How many words does the average child know by Grade 1? Grade 5?

A

10,000 grade 1; 40,000 grade 5

33
Q

What is overextention

A

overextension=occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant. Like learning the word ball and then calling everything round ball

34
Q

What is underextension?

A

Underextension: occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. For ex, a child might use the world doll to refer to a single favorite doll.

35
Q

Give examples of overregulation

A

when children learn past tense but use it wrong, like saying I ated or I wented or I goed-overregularization occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply . I hitted the ball

36
Q

what is Metalinguistic Speech

A

the ability to reflect on the use of language.

37
Q

Does learning two languages from an early age (at the same time) influence the rate of language learning or negatively affect cognitive development?

A

Bilingualism is hte acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocab, and grammatical rules. There is little empirical data support for the belief that bilingualism has serious negative effects on language development

38
Q

What do the behaviourist theories say about language learning

A

Skimmer outlined hte theory in the book Verbal behavior, he basically said it was a result of reinforcement. He argued that kids learn language the same way they learn everything else: by imitation, reinforcement and other established principles of conditioning

39
Q

What does the nativist theory say about language learning

A

came from Noam Chomsky, who pointed out that there are infinite number of sentences in a language. therefore it’s unreasonble to expect that kids learn language by imitation. according to chomsky kids learn the rules of language not specific verbal responses as skinner proposed . chomsky and others favored a theory that humans have an inborn “native” propensity to develop language

40
Q

What do the Interactionist theorize about language?

A

they asked what exactly is a language acquisition device? how does the LAD work? What are teh neural mechanisms involved? Theyargue that the LAD concept is terribly vague. they assert hat it isn’t fair to compare the rapid progress of toddlers who are immersed in their native language, against hte struggles of older students…… they beleive human organims are biologically equipped for language learning but….something something they have a lot to say

41
Q

What is a language-acquisition device (LAD)?

A

LAD=Language Acquisition device, an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
Comment: Noam Chomsky’s conception is most commonly referred to as the theory of universal grammar.

42
Q

Explain why the behaviourist approach is generally not thought to be sufficient to explain language acquisition.

A

Comment: Some problems with the behaviourist view are that it cannot easily account for i. the generative nature of language. There are infinite number of sentences in language so it can’t be as simple as imitation
ii. overregularization. Again, adults don’t say things like I goed to the store, or I hurted myself… normally haha, so where are kids learning overregularization and why is that a development phase that isn’t modled for them
iii. the lack of evidence for routine and consistent reinforcement in language interactions between children and care givers.
iv. the simple fact that all typically developing children learn the language to which they are exposed. If it depended mostly/entirely on operant conditioning, one would expect that some children would not.

43
Q

Describe the linguistic relativity hypothesis.

A

The hypothesis that one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought. Whorf speculated that diff langauges lead ppl to view he world differently

44
Q

Describe the evidence for and against the linguistic relativity hypothesis—both strong and weak versions of it—and state the current consensus about its relevance or merit.
Comment: The linguistic relativity hypothesis is most often referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, although our textbook only mentions Whorf’s contribution.

A

hisconclusions were based on casual obersvation and not systematic cross-cultural comparisons of perceptual processes… this question was so boring, pg 290 to study more

45
Q

What is problem solving?

A

Refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve goal that is not readily attainable. Can include 1. categorize the problem and define the goal
2. select strategies or algorithms
3. create a plan, determine sub-goals
4. execute steps in the plan (the algorithms or strategies)
5. assess the solution

46
Q

What are four common obstacles (barrier) to problem solving:

A

Irrelevant info, functional fixedness, mental set, unnecessary constraints

47
Q

What is: the irrelevant info leads people astray, Sternber gpoints out that ppl often incorrectly assume that all of the info ina problem is necessary to solve it

A

Irrelevant info in problem solving

48
Q

What is: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

A

functional fixedness

49
Q

What is it when: exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past

A

Mental set

50
Q

What is it: effective problem solving requires specifying all the constraints governing a problem without assuming any constraints that don’t exist .

A

unnecessary constraints (people asked to draw the box without lifting pencil )

51
Q

How does prior learning affect mental sets?

A

They reflect sensible learning from past experiences but it can get in the way of problem solving (like chess players using past proven problem solving strategies but it can backfire and hamper problem solving)

52
Q

What is the problem-space search metaphor of problem solving?

A

Problem space refers to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver

53
Q

Name 4 types of problem solving approaches

A

Trial and Error
Hill Climibing
Algorithms
Heuristics

54
Q

What is trial and error?

A

Trial and Error: involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works

55
Q

WHat is hill climbing

A

Hill Climbing: Comment: Hill climbing isn’t discussed in the textbook, but it is a simple approach that often works. It involves changing the initial state to progressively make it more and more like the goal—it involves forward search. The name comes from the metaphor of trying to reach the peak of a hill (that is, the goal state) when there’s a thick fog, so that you can’t see the top from where you are. You look around you and take the next step that takes you uphill—you think that will eventually get you to the top. While hill climbing works well when there’s just one “peak” in the problem space, it can be ineffective way to solve the Hobbits and Orcs problem or the Tower of Hanoi problem, since these problems require you to, at times, actually move away from the goal state in order to achieve the solution to the problem.

56
Q

What are algorithms for problem solving

A

Algorithms : see notes on study guide : Comment: There’s an error in our textbook in its definition for algorithms: “An algorithm is a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem” (p. 293).
The first part, “An algorithm is a methodical, step-by-step procedure,” is correct. But the second part is not quite accurate: “for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem.” In fact, that describes a very specific algorithm called exhaustive search, in which one tries out all of the possible solution paths (typically in some order) until the solution is found. This can only be used for some problems—ones with a very small set of possible paths. This is a particular algorithmic approach that is often very costly, if not practically impossible, to use

57
Q

What are heuristics for problem solving

A

Heuristics : a heuristic is a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions. Helpful heuristics include forming subgoals, working backward, searching for analogies and changing the representation of a problem

58
Q

Describe general problem-solving strategies (very general heuristics):
a. creating sub-goals
b. working backward
c. analogical reasoning
d. changing the representation of the problem

A

uuuhhhhh - narrowing things down by what you know in the case of emma guessing her roommates password is a hueristic… need to review this quiz for sure

59
Q

Bill and Jill were foraging for wild berries and each had a small basket that they wished to fill. Bill walked along the path, stopped whenever he found a berry patch, and worked on filling his basket. Jill decided to walk about a kilometre along the trail, noting the best berry patches on her map of the trail. She then headed back to those patches and worked on filling her basket. Which problem-solving method did Bill use?

A

Analysis: This is an example of hill climbing, since Bill worked toward his goal by progressively adding berries to his basket. Jill, on the other hand, used the heuristic of “scouting ahead” to find the most plentiful berry patches (this was also a sub-goal: find the best patches). Without more information, we cannot say which was the better approach, since Bill may have finished filling his basket while Jill was scouting ahead, or Jill’s exploration of the problem space may have allowed her to fill her basket more quickly at the best berry patches.

60
Q

Dr. Berker was given the responsibility for organizing the homecoming celebration at his school. This was a huge task, and there was very little time in which to do it. He first set himself the task of finding all of the names of post-graduates, while at the same time finding out what days would be available in the school auditorium and what eminent speakers might be available.

A

Analysis: This is an example of solving a problem by formulating sub-goals or intermediate steps to a final goal.

61
Q

The clock on the stove needed to be reset after a power failure. Linda got out the owner’s manual and followed the instructions for setting the time. Since it was a simple procedure, she remembered it and used it from then on whenever the power went out, and to change the time on the clock in spring and fall for daylight saving time.

A

Analysis: This is an example of an algorithm, since the procedure will solve the problem of resetting the clock.

62
Q

Emma wanted to use her roommate’s laptop to work on her term paper. However, the laptop was password-protected. Rather than starting at “A” and systematically testing every possible word in the English language, Emma made some educated guesses about the password based on what she knew about her roommate.

A

Analysis: This is an example of heuristics. Emma narrowed the choices using what she knew about her friend.

63
Q

Lance was entered in a newspaper competition that required him to solve a complex anagram. Lance carefully and systematically tried every potential solution by testing each possible combination of the letters provided.

This is an example of . . .

A

Analysis: This is an example of an exhaustive search, of trying all possible solution paths until locating the correct solution.

64
Q

When Graham was printing copies of a document on a computer, the paper kept jamming in the printer. Graham took the paper out of the paper tray, fanned it, and then flipped it over so that the other side of the paper fed first. That is how he’d solved similar problems with the photocopy machine at the office where he worked.

This is an example of . . .

A

Analysis: This is an example of a searching-for-analogies heuristic. Here, Graham spotted an analogy to a previous problem and was able to use it to solve a current problem.

65
Q

Alaina was working on her bicycle. She brought her entire tool kit out onto her driveway and started pulling wrenches from the tool kit at random, trying all of them until she found one that fitted.

This is an example of . . .

A

Analysis: This is an example of trial and error. Alaina tried to find a solution in a haphazard way. She discarded each unsuccessful attempt until she found the right solution.

66
Q

Myra wanted to generate a set of anagrams for a contest in the campus paper. To generate the anagrams, Myra started with the words that the contestants were required come up with to win the contest, and then she scrambled their letters.

This is an example of . . .

A

Analysis: This is an example of a working-backward heuristic. Mira found the solution most easily by beginning at the end and working backward.

67
Q

involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

A

what is decision making

68
Q

making choices under conditions of uncertainty

A

risky decision making

69
Q

describe: availability heuristic

A

Involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. FOr example you may estimate the divorce rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends’ parents. Recalling specific instances of an event is a reasonable strategy to use in estimating the events probability….

ch 7 and 8 psych 289 (4 decks)

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