ch12: personality Flashcards
personality
an enduring set of internally based characteristics that create uniqueness and consistency in a person’s thoughts and behaviours, along with an explanation to account for these characteristics
what is the focus of personality psychology
attempts to account for individual differences in thinking, feeling, and behaviours at various levels of analysis that range from biological level (heredity) to group level (cultural differences)
traits
internally based characteristics that make up one’s personality
what are the three distinct elements of personality
uniqueness, consistency, and explanation
uniqueness
personality traits are specific to each person, even among monozygotic twins each twin has unique personality traits
consistency
how an individual behaves over time in similar situations
explanation
personality traits and characteristics provides an explanation to account for the expression of the behaviour
the topographical theory of mind
proposed by Sigmund Freud suggesting that the way an individual feels and behaves is the result of three mental systems operating together: conscious mind, preconscious mind, and unconscious mind
conscious mind
all mental activities (thoughts, feelings, motivations, and goals) that a person is aware of and able to freely access
preconscious mind
a level of consciousness that is not in the forefront of one’s thoughts, information can still be retrieved and brought to the conscious awareness
unconscious mind
the largest and most influential part of the mind, according to Freud. houses any thoughts, impulses, feelings, memories, needs, desires, and past experienced that influence personality and decision making
free association
a technique of psychoanalysis in which a client is encouraged to freely share thoughts, words, and anything else that comes to mind to gain insight into their unconscious mind
manifest content
in dream analysis, the content of the dream that is remembered, without any interpretation (according to Freud, it is the disguised content from our unconscious mind)
latent content
the content of dreams that is expressions of the unconscious mind and a reflection of one’s true feelings, needs, and desires
Freud’s structural model of the mind
provides a framework for how both the unconscious and conscious minds develop and operate
id
- the core component of personality in the unconscious mind that is driven by sexual and aggressive impulses
- takes care of basic human needs for survival in addition to satisfying sexual impulses and unrestrained aggression
- in constant state of conflict
pleasure principle
the driving force of the id, where the focus is on the fulfillment os sexual urges and aggressive impulses
Eros
unconscious sexual impulses
Thanatos
death impulse manifested as unrestrained aggression
ego
- the component of personality that mediates between the id and superego and ultimately decides the course of action
- meet the needs of id within the constraints of the real world
- works between reality, unconscious impulses of id, and moral limits of superego
reality principle
the driving force of the ego where impulses from the unconscious and id are rejected in their natural form and are expressed in socially acceptable ways
superego
one’s moral compass of what is right and wrong, regulated by ego ideal and conscience
ego ideal
creates a sense of pride when individuals exhibits thoughts and behaviours consistent with a personal moral code
conscience
creates a sense of shame, disapproval, anxiety, or guilt when the individual exhibits thoughts and behaviours that violate the personal moral code
reality anxiety
informs the ego of real danger
moral anxiety
notifies the superego that the ego is considering violating a moral code
neurotic anxiety
warns the ego of the threatening expression of id impulses at the level of conscious awareness
defense mechanisms
ways to avert the expression of id impulses without conscious awareness
repression
a common defence mechanism where the ego removes (ignore, trying to forget) the threatening stimulus from conscious awareness
reaction formation
a type of defence mechanism where unconscious thoughts and desires are expressed as their opposite
projection
a type of defence mechanism where one attributes the unacceptable feelings and thoughts to others (easing guilt by believing everyone is doing it too)
regression
a type of defence mechanism where one reacts to threatening situation with a baby-like reaction (acting like a baby)
sublimation
a type of defence mechanism where one transform inappropriate impulses and thoughts into socially acceptable or valuable expressions
denial
a type of defence mechanism where one consciously refuse to perceive the painful situation exist
rationalization
a type of defence mechanism where one creates an acceptable explanation to replace the true motives
displacement
a type of defence mechanism where one shifts the expression of unwanted impulse from a threatening person to a less threatening one
the five psychosexual stages
proposed by Freud suggesting that personality is developed through the five stages, each reflecting the conflict between the id seeking immediate pleasure and the society’s demand to restrict it
erogenous zone
area of the body that serves as the source of enjoyment
fixated
according to Freud, if one did not successfully navigate a psychosexual stage, they would become stuck at that stage, affecting personality development and behaviour in adulthood (a person under stress may regress to the stage that they’re stuck at later in life)
oral stage
- birth to 2 years
- erogenous zone: mouth
- conflict associated with weaning from breast or bottle feeding
- successful: develop a willingness to delay gratification
- failed: overindulgence in oral-related activities when stressed (overeating, excessive drinking, yelling)
anal stage
- 2 to 3 years
- erogenous zone: anus
- conflict associated with toilet training
- successful: learning that there is a right time and right place when seeking pleasure
- failed: difficulties interacting with others in a civil society due to a tendency to behave inappropriately (making a mess, saying or doing something inappropriate, or overly concerned with neatness)
phallic stage
- 3 to 6 years
- Oedipal complex for boys and electra complex for girls
- erogenous zone: genitals
- conflict associated with competition with the same-sex parent for the affection of the opposite-sex parent
- successful: understanding appropriate sex-role behaviour patterns, go along and get along with those more powerful than you
- failed: problems with individuals and agencies in position of power (hostile behaviour with supervisors, law enforcement personnel)
latency period
- 7 to 11 years
- no erogenous zone
- conflict associated with practicing emerging sex-role behaviours during interaction with same-sex peers
- successful: knowing that others of the same sex are going through this difficult time of transition
- failed: exhibiting extreme sex-role stereotypical behaviour and attitudes, failure to consider the value of those who are different (making sexist or racist comments)
genital stage
- 11 years to adulthood
- erogenous zone: genitals
- conflict associated with the expression of emotional feelings and establishing meaningful relationships with opposite sex
- successful: to get pleasure, you must give pleasure (expressions of affection)
- failed: unable to form loving and intimate relationships due to inability to provide comfort and support to others, thinking only of their own needs
collective unconscious
- according to Carl Jung, the unconscious mind is interconnected with the expressions of past generations of different people throughout the world
- ex. fear of the unknown, search for novelty, need for emotional contact
archetypes
all universal knowledge is stored in the collective unconscious by a variety of thought patterns and behaviour rituals that persist over time. Jung proposed three archetypes that are important to one’s personality: the persona, the shadow, and the self
the persona
the tendency for people to develop a certain pattern of behaviour when in public to get along with others (similar to Freud’s superego)
the shadow
represents the dark and more primitive side of personality (similar to Freud’s id)
the self
the most important archetype, servers to unite all other aspects of the individual’s personality (like Freud’s ego)
striving for superiority
Alfred Adler proposed that at a conscious level, individuals are motivated by efforts to achieve excellence and improvements over our past selves and to act in ways to benefit social interest (primary motivational source of personality, becoming a better person)
social interest
according to Adler, the strive for superiority should be guided by the principle of social interest, the goal should be to make society better as you make yourself a better person
social security
a concept by Karen Horney that describes a sense of feeling safe and loved in our relationships with others
basic anxiety
according to Horney, those who don’t feel love, who feel unsafe and powerless in their relationships, develop feelings of anxiety
basic hostility
according to Horney, people feel anger and hostility when in insecure relationships, particularly when one’s significant other makes no effort to forge a secure environment
what are the three basic strategies individuals use to reduce feelings of basic anxiety and create a sense of safety according to Horney
moving toward people, away from people, and against people
moving toward people
individuals does and says certain things with the goals of attracting others to like and take care of them
moving away from people
individual withdraws emotionally and use behaviour avoidance to protect themselves from getting hurt
moving against people
individual tried to emotionally harm others to prevent others from hurting them
how do the perspectives of humanistic psychology differ from Freudians (and neo-Freudnians)
humanism focuses on uniqueness and personal growth, based on the assumption that expressions of personality is motivated by internal desire for self-improvement which operates at the conscious level, Freudians focus on the influences of the unconscious
self-concept
according to Carl Rogers, is how someone perceives their unique set of characteristics, skills, qualities, and abilities
self-esteem
according to Carl Rogers, is how positively or negatively a person evaluates him or herself based on life experiences
actual self
according to Rogers, the form of self that a person is currently at
ideal self
according to Rogers, the form of self that a person strives to become
conditional positive regard
serves to stifle personal growth by placing limits on the acceptance people give to others (love and acceptance of a person are contingent upon their actions and behaviours)
unconditional positive regard
based on the inherent goodness of people and the need for unwavering love and acceptance (Rogers believed individuals are more willing to task risks and test the limits of their abilities to establish a more accurate sense of self without fearing the judgement of significant others)
self-system
according to Albert Bandura, it is a set of cognitions that people use to observe, evaluate, and regulate their behaviour in different situations
self-efficacy
according to Bandura, is the belief about one’s ability to successfully perform in a given situation
locus of control
according to Julian Rotter, is a personality construct that represents the degree to which individuals believe that they are in control of their outcomes and experiences
external locus of control
individuals who believe they lack control over the events in their lives
internal locus of control
individuals who believe they control what happens in their current life as well as their future
learned helplessness
one of the contributing factors of external locus of control, individuals believe their ability to prevent unpleasant events in their life is outside of their control
delay of gratification
the willingness to forgo a smaller but immediate reward for a larger reward in the future “willpower”
marshmallow test
conducted by Walter Mischel to test children’s ability to delay gratification
biological perspectives
this perspective on personality assumes that certain biological factors and processes serve to influence the underlying operation and expression of personality, including: behavioural genetics, neurological perspective, and evolutionary perspectives
behavioural genetics perspective
examines how certain inherited biological factors (genes) interact with environmental factors (family environment or socioeconomic status) to determine the expression of certain personality characteristics
twin studies
one of the most common method used to determine genetic contribution, allows researchers to determine the proportion of a characteristic or behaviour that is due to genetics (nature) or upbringing (nurture)
concordance rate
the degree to which a characteristic, trait, or disease that occurs in one twin similarly occurs in the second twin
neurological perspective
examines the extent to which various physiological factors (hormones and neurotransmitters) and brain activity (arousal and inhibition) determine the expression of certain personality characteristics
testosterone
a male sex hormone associated with dominance, aggression, persistence, sensation-seeking, and high-risk behaviours
serotonin
an inhibitory neurotransmitter associated with mood, anxiety, appetite and digestion, sleeping, and other functions. Also linked to willingness to engage in thrill-seeking behaviours (personality trait)
ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)’s connection with personality
acts as a filter, responsible for regulating arousal, and linked with the personality dimension of introversion (higher level of arousal) and extraversion (lower level of arousal)
evolutionary perspective
uses evolutionary theory to account for differences in personality, which are adaptive responses to survival and reproductive success
what are the two personality characteristics associated with survival
conscientiousness and optimism
conscientiousness
makes individuals more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviours and avoid risks
optimism
makes individuals more likely to have fewer symptoms and quicker recovery when dealing with medical concerns
what are the two personality characteristics negatively associated with longevity
hostile Type A personality and neuroticism
Type A personality
tend to suppress their feelings of emotional distress, frustration, an anger, thereby increasing the effects of these emotions on their overall health
neuroticism
tend to be overly moody, unstable, and anxious (general state of hyperarousal and tension)
functionally infertile individuals (FII)
those for whom reproduction is possible but rates of reproductive success are low
personality characteristics correlating with females with high FII
- harm avoidance: results in less frequent sex
- low cooperativeness: creating difficulties with potential sex partners
- higher scores on depression and anxiety: resulting in negative emotions being associated with sex
personality characteristics associated with males with low FII
- self confidence
- extraversion
- social assertiveness
traits
terms we use to describe our own personality and of others that we assume to be stable over time and across situations (make individuals unique)
factor analysis
- a statistical technique that can determine the number of separate constructs being assessed in a given measurement instrument
- for personality measures, it analyzes responses on a survey given to a group of participants, data analysis finds item with a shared variance that have high inter-item correlations
sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16PF)
a trait-based personality measure that was developed from a list of personality traits, using factor analysis
factor analysis
a statistical technique that uses pattern association to group together many items in a test based on their similarity in content (related items are grouped together into a set of major factors)
Three-Factory Theory
proposed by Eysenck, suggesting that personality consists of three trait dimensions: extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/emotional stability, and psychoticism/impulse control
extraverted individuals
socially oriented, outgoing, adventure-seeking, and optimistic
introverted individuals
tend to avoid social situations, enjoy time alone, have a calm and quiet demeanor, prefer quiet time (report that they feel drained from social gatherings)
high degree of neuroticism
- the tendency to be touchy, restless, moody, and anxious (low degree of neuroticism = carefree, even-tempered, and calm)
- associated with increased level of activity in the sympathetic nervous system
high degree of psychoticism
- the tendency to be impulsive, cold, aggressive, unconcerned with the rights of others, and have antisocial characteristics
- linked to high levels of testosterone and low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO)
five-factor model (FFM)
identified five distinct components of personality often referred to as “the Big 5”: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion/sociability, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)
openness in FFM
- high level: artistic, insightful, and intelligence
- low level: common-place, shallow, and having narrow interests
conscientiousness in FFM
- high level: deliberate, efficient, and precise
- low level: careless, frivolous, and irresponsible
extraversion/sociability in FFM
- high level: adventurous, assertive, dominant, and sociable
- low level: quiet, reserved, retiring, and shy
aggreableness in FFM
- high level: cooperative, generous, and sympathetic
- low level: cruel, quarrelsome, and unfriendly
neuroticism in FFM
- high level: anxious, self-pitying, and temperamental
- low level: calm, contented, and stable
personality assessment
examines various aspects of personality with the goal of helping people better understand themselves and others
reliability
the consistency of a measure (test-retest reliability)
validity
the accuracy of a measure, as assessed by the degree to which you are actually measuring what you think you are measuring
predictive validity
documents the extent to which the scores from the items on the test can predict the behaviour it is proposing to measure
psychometrician
an individual who has expertise in tests and measures and who understands the various measures of reliability and validity
concurrent validity
concurrent means simultaneous assessment, you would administer the personality measure and simultaneously assess the criterion
observational assessment techniques
measure personality by using specific guidelines for recording what individuals do, think, and feel in naturalistic and controlled settings
behavioural observation
recording behaviours as they occur while remaining as unobtrusive as possible (recording actual behaviours)
self-monitoring techniques
individuals record the frequency that they engage in particular behaviours
thought sampling techniques
individuals record the nature and frequency of the thoughts they have in certain situations
objective self-report techniques
measure personality by linking the responses individuals provide to a series of standardized items contained in personality tests
fixed format
objective measures that require test takers to select a response from one of those provided
single-dimension tests
relatively short, allow the testing professional to focus on the specific dimension of interest
multiple-dimension personality
measure more than one dimension at a time
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
an objective personality measure that assesses both personality traits and the presence of mental illness
MMPI-2
assesses 10 trait-like clinical dimensions of personality and contains 567 test questions to which individuals must respond in a fixed format by selecting from three responses alternatives: true, false, or cannot say (originally designed to help diagnose individuals suffering from major psychological disorders) (hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion.)
the Cannot Say Scale
assesses the degree to which the individual is trying to conceal unfavourable information about personal tendencies
the Lie Scale (L)
identifies the extent to which the person is trying to respond in socially desirable manner
the Infrequency Scale (F)
monitors if the respondent does not seem to be taking the test seriously
the Correction Scale (K)
examines the possibility of the individual responding in a defensive manner
projective techniques
the underlying logic is that the meaning the person projects onto the ambiguous test stimuli reflects the individual’s unconscious feelings, needs, and desires. ambiguous stimuli may be an inkblot (Rorschach Inkblot test) or a drawing of an ambiguous situation (TAT) no clear answer (lack reliability)
association techniques
present a test stimulus to an individual and then ask them to respond with the first word, thought, or feeling that comes to mind
Rorschach inkblot test
a form of projective assessment where the individual is shown 10 different inkblots and asked to report what they perceive the inkblot to be
major criticism of using the Rorschach
- overall lack of reliability and validity
- seemingly unlimited number of possible responses to the inkblots makes a consistent pattern of interpretation of the results across raters difficult
construction techniques
another form of projective assessment, involves the individual creating something (story) from the test stimuli (most famous example: TAT)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
individual is shown a series of 17 cards containing an ambiguous photograph and asked to complete a story for each photograph, which is then analyzed to make judgement about the individual’s personality based on common emotional and psychological themes
what is the reason for the lack of support for TAT
the administrator’s disregard fro standardized methods of interpretation, they’re relying solely on their intuition rather than a tested means of analysis)
electrophysiological measures
linking certain bodily processes (heart rate, muscle tension, and skin conductance - galvanized skin response GSR) to different dimensions of personality
biochemical measures
involve linking an assortment of biochemical processes, such as neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetic characteristics, to different dimensions of personality
cortical measures
linking certain levels of electrical activity in different regions of the brain with different dimensions of personality
