ch11: motivation and emotion Flashcards
emotions
describes short-lived feelings we have towards an object or situational event, these feelings often correspond to specific facial expressions and physiological changes and can influence future behaviour
moods
long-lasting, less-intense states and are not affected by a specific object or event
reinforcement contingency
happy to obtain a reinforcer or avoid a punisher / unhappy to obtain a punisher or avoid a reinforcer
intensity of reinforcer
happier for larger reinforcer than a smaller one
antecedent stimuli
a stimulus can signal the availability of a reinforcer as well as a punisher (emotions are conditioned to antecedent stimuli, behaviours, and consequences)
unconditioned reinforcers
different emotions for different unconditioned reinforcers (happy for food, relief for water)
conditioned reinforcers
different emotions for different conditioned reinforcers (happy for good grade, relief for money)
positive punishment
happy to not respond in order to (passively) avoid an aversive stimulus
negative reinforcement
relief after responding in order to actively avoid an aversive stimulus
elicitation of hormonal and physiological responses
rush of adrenaline and fear to avoid a stranger
arbitrary response for rewards; motivational
fear elicited by a tone to motivate lever pressing to avoid shock
communication
expressing fear tells other members of your species to stay away from the aversive stimulus
social bonding
a parent experiencing fear will protect her offspring
mood state dependency, evaluation of memories
learning something while afraid will make you more likely to recall that information when you are afraid
storage of memories
you knew you were afraid when you saw that scary movie last week at the theatre across from campus
perseveration
fear last longer than shock, so rats who are still afraid after the shock stopped will press the level
for each distinct emotion, we need to state…
- under what evolutionary-relevant conditions we experience an emotion
- how an emotion affects us
- how behaviour evoked by an emotion solves an evolutionary problem
emotions include 4 temporary changes
- hormones or physiology
- behaviour, including thinking and feeling
- facial expression
- sense perception
what are the three principles of emotions proposed by Charles Darwin based on the fact that emotions are adaptive and function as communication
- serviceable habits
- antithesis
- direct action of the excited nervous system on the body
first principle of serviceable habits
emphasizes that the way emotions are expressed serves a purpose in nonhuman animals but not people
second principle of antithesis
emphasizes how opposite emotions have opposite bodily expressions
third principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body
emphasizes how emotions result in perceivable changes in the nervous system
basic emotion theory
grew out of Darwin’s theory and suggests that distinct emotions and their associated cognitive, physiological, and motor responses unfold over time in a very predictable pattern without attention or intention
according to James, what is the incorrect sequence of events involved in processing an emotion that we think we experience (perception-experience-expression order)
- we perceive a physical stimulus in the environment
- we experience an emotion
- we express that emotion publicly through bodily gestures or moving our facial muscles
the James-Lange theory of emotions
people perceive a stimulus, express the emotion the stimulus evokes, and then identify their emotion
what is the James-Lange sequence of events for an emotion
- we perceive the physical stimulus from the natural environment
- we express the emotion publicly, physiological changes occur as a result of perceiving physical stimulus
- we acknowledge the privately experienced emotion
how did Cannon countered James’ assumptions about the internal organs being important for processing emotions
- cutting off the CNS from the internal organs should prevent acknowledgement of the emotion, but it doesn’t
- different physiological responses should occur in different emotional and neutral states, but the physiological responses can be similar when accompanied by emotion or not (heart rate could increase when afraid or from exercising)
- the internal structures should be more sensitive than the external structures, but the skin is not more sensitive to stimulation than the intestines
the Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotions
people perceive a stimulus and then simultaneously express the emotion and identify their emotion.
1. we perceive the physical stimulus in the environment
2. we simultaneously produce bodily or facial expression changes and acknowledge the emotion
the thalamus mediates these emotional reactions and reports back to the cortex (thalamus plays an important role in this theory)
evidence for the important of thalamus for emotions
- rage is evoked by surgically removing the cerebrum in front of the thalamus but disappears when the thalamus is also removed
- tumours on different sides of the thalamus produce different emotions
- anesthesia or impairment produces unregulated crying or laughing
what is the difference between the James-Lange and the Cannon-Bard theories of emotions
event surrounding the expression of emotion occur sequentially within the James-Lange theory but simultaneously with the help of the thalamus for Cannon-Bard
action unit
each emotion has a specific facial expression that we can detect involving movement of the eyebrows, nose, mouth, cheeks, and eyes
what are the four universal emotions
happy, anxious, surprised, and disgusted are the basis for more nuanced emotions (contempt, envy, anticipation)
emotional contagion
when one person observes and then experiences the same emotion as another person
conditioned emotional response procedure
the process of linking an emotional response, through classical conditioning to a neutral stimulus
ontogeny
described how an individual developed over a life time, and ontogenetic learning involves the animal-environment interactions that are specific to an individual (怕蛇因為被咬過)
what is the function of ketamine
blocks the uptake of glutamate, an amino acid that is connected with arousal of negative emotions, could help people who experience depression or anxiety become less distressed
conspecific
a member of their own species
according to Clark Hull, what are the two parts to a conditioned response
- the physical stimulus related to producing rewards that we encounter in the environment
- the perception of a goal-related stimulus
frustrative events
a third type of goal event in which rewards are not as quickly available as they once were or are omitted entirely, thereby leading to frustration (added to Hull’s theory to explain why animals continue to respond longer in extinction when they are frustrated)
distressed vocalization / alarm signal
used by animals when they’re lost and can’t find their mother or as a call out for help
exteroceptive stimuli
a type of stimuli that comes from outside our bodies to indicate a change from one state to another, a stimulus that others can also see, hear, feel, touch, etc
orosensory stimuli
flavour and texture sensations in the mouth
interoceptive stimuli
a type of stimuli that come from within our bodies to indicate a change from one sate to another (private sensations)
flavour conditioning
occurs with a lag of around 4 to 6 hours in between the taste of the food and the calories it signals (trace conditioning)
what is the function of insulin
- it is made in the pancreas and helps with absorption of blood glucose (sugar)
- upon smelling of the food, our blood glucose level decreases as our CNS anticipates the insulin injection and prepare for the upcoming change in insulin levels to maintain homeostasis
what is the function of ghrelin
it is made in the stomach and stimulates appetite
what is the function of leptin
it is made in adipocytes (fat cells) and suppresses appetite
which brain regions are integral to hunger
- hypothalamus: more active and produces proteins to induce eating when hungry and less active when we’re full, it also produces the neuropeptide orexin, which regulates eating when we’re hungry and when we’re eating food without feeling hungry
- insular cortex: hunger increases the connectivity between posterior and anterior insula, where the primary gustatory cortex is located
- amygdala: processes food cues and emotions
- cerebellum: tells us when we’re full and should stop eating
satiated
the sense of being satisfied or full
occasion setters
internal or external stimuli that signal the relationship between a response and an outcome (teaches us to eat when we’re hungry but not when we’re satiated)
how does artificial sweeteners break the CS-US relationship in eating habit
they are supposed to be healthier as they contain no calories but breaking the association between sweetness and calories tend to make rats consume more calories and gain more weight and the normal course of digestion is changed. (don’t feel the normal cues of food satiety, cognitive decline in people, we need another aspect of food as an occasion setter to tell us when sweetness indicate calories or not)
conditioned taste/flavour aversions
occur to keep us from consuming food that would make us sick or potentially kill us
what type of conditioning occurs when hunger serves as an occasion setter for learning about taste
Pavlovian conditioning. hunger is an occasion setter, the taste of food is the conditional stimulus, the unconditional stimulus is calories provided by the food. the CS is associated with the UCS
what are the three theories about why conditional responses occur
preparatory responding, stimulus substitution, and signal substitution
functions of saliva
helps to break down food as we chew it, helps to dilute acids (makes the taste of acid less intense and neutralizes the acid by increasing the pH level)
preparatory responding
emphasizes the adaptive properties of the conditional response
stimulus substitution
a type of conditioning in which an animal respond to the conditional stimulus as if it were interchangeable with the unconditional stimulus (CS substitutes for the US)
signal substitution
a type of conditioning in which an animal responds to an artificial conditional stimulus as if it were interchangeable with a naturally-occurring conditional stimulus (CS used in the lab substitutes CS occurs in a natural environment)
energy budget
an animal needs to consume a specific amount of calories in a day to survive
forage
animals look for an locate food when they need to eat
cache
food that is saved when food is scarce
hoard
animals will sometimes store a large number of items in the same place, including some inedible items that don’t need to be stored
what are the environmental factors that influences food-related behaivour
social norms, disruptive events leading to changes in our diets, portion size
how does Pavlovian conditioning affect mating
conditional stimuli can enhance sexual conditional responses
belongingness
a type of cue-consequence learning in which some cues are easier to condition to specific signals than others for enhanced survival
good genes hypothesis
females tend to choose mates seen to have genetic advantages, thereby increasing offspring quality
hermaphrodites
an adjective describing an animal that can be either male, contributing sperm, or female, contributing eggs, in a sexual encounter
gender ratio hypothesis
describes how see slugs (they are hermaphrodites) decide when to contribute sperm and when to receive it. it is more advantageous to fulfill the female role for the first part of a reproductive period, but the male role is favoured with subsequent mating opportunities, which role their fulfill also depends on the size (bigger sea slugs lay larger egg clutches) and the number of sexual partners of the potential mate
phermones
a type of chemical signal to indicate the reproductive status of a potential partner, it works by increasing attraction or sexual desire for the purpose of reproduction
olfactory stimulus
a type of stimulus in which animals detect and learn about what scent stimuli predict. we smell something and it changes our behaviour
the Bruce effect
occur when a female mouse’s (or rat, sheep, horse) pregnancy is terminated within the first few days by a new male
the Whitten effect
typically produced by introducing a male (or his smell) and can induce ovulation in multiple female rats simultaneously
the Coolidge effect
occurs when a habituated sexual response increases with a new animal, allowing the male to maximize his mating opportunities and produce more offspring (an animal has multiple mate-pairings with the same partner, loses interest, and experiences renewed sexual interest in a new partner)
habituation
a type of learning in which an animal is exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly and eventually stops responding to the uninformative stimulus
dishabituation
an effect when an animal is exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly, stops responding, and responds to the repeated stimulus when there is a change in context, a different stimulus is presented just before it, or there is a rest period
mate poaching
occurs when an individual expresses sexual interest in an individual that is already in a relationship to get that person to leave their current relationship
paternal uncertainty
a phenomenon that puts men at a disadvantage because they cannot know directly whether the child their partner is carrying is theirs or someone else’s, which is why when infants look like their fathers, he is more likely to invest resources into their care
rivalry sensitivity hypothesis
women focus on rivals in their partner’s immediate vicinity while men focus on their parter if a rival is nearby (evolved to help people retain their mates)
motivation
the cause of behaviour that is closely tied to an antecedents and consequences of behaviours as well as internal drives, it is why we do what we do
drive-reduction theory
the first theory of motivation produced by Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence stating that need is determined by a combination of learning and a person’s physiology, and need intensity is reflected in the intensity of responding (they also hypothesized that more-emotional participants would show greater reactions to the same moderate level of intensity of an aversive stimulus than less-emotional participants)
what is the operant approach to motivation
motivation is tied to the preceding stimuli and associated consequences of behaviour. it is the cause of behaviour
the Premack principle
states that reinforcers are preferred activities and that you’ll do some less preferred activity to access the desirable activity (the reinforcer)
motivating operations
variables that are extended in time and momentarily change the current frequency of behaviour related to a specific reinforcer (act on antecedent stimulus, behaviour, and consequence contingency) (alter the value of a reward)
establishing operations
a type of motivating operations that increase the effectiveness of reinforcers and evoke behaviour related to obtaining them
abolishing operations
a type of motivating operations that decreases the effectiveness of reinforcers and decreases behaviour related to obtaining them
hierarchy of needs
proposed by Abraham Maslow which is a theory explaining motivation as a series of five human needs and the fulfillment. physiological - safety - love/belonging - esteem - self-actualization - self-transcendence
life-sustaining physiological needs
food, water, sleep, these are the ones with drive-reduction and reinforcement motivational theories
safety needs
include creating a secure and stable environment
love and belonging
building healthy relationships with friends, family, romantic partner
esteem needs
characterized by the desire to have the respect of others by taking a leadership role or representing others
self-actualization needs
the tendency to strive for self-improvement and self-enhancement to ultimately achieve our fullest potential
self-transcnedence
less of a focus on the self and an increase in feelings of connectedness with others in short-term experiences
need to belong
people need to form close, strong, and lasting interpersonal relationships for their own well-being
ostracism
is when one member or the whole group ignores and excludes another member or group who is ill, freeloading, or lacks the skills needed to contribute
achievement motivation
all people have an internal desire or drive to achieve excellence at something, which is reflected in their performance on tasks in that content area
