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PSYA02 > ch11: motivation and emotion > Flashcards

ch11: motivation and emotion Flashcards

1
Q

emotions

A

describes short-lived feelings we have towards an object or situational event, these feelings often correspond to specific facial expressions and physiological changes and can influence future behaviour

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2
Q

moods

A

long-lasting, less-intense states and are not affected by a specific object or event

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3
Q

reinforcement contingency

A

happy to obtain a reinforcer or avoid a punisher / unhappy to obtain a punisher or avoid a reinforcer

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4
Q

intensity of reinforcer

A

happier for larger reinforcer than a smaller one

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5
Q

antecedent stimuli

A

a stimulus can signal the availability of a reinforcer as well as a punisher (emotions are conditioned to antecedent stimuli, behaviours, and consequences)

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6
Q

unconditioned reinforcers

A

different emotions for different unconditioned reinforcers (happy for food, relief for water)

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7
Q

conditioned reinforcers

A

different emotions for different conditioned reinforcers (happy for good grade, relief for money)

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8
Q

positive punishment

A

happy to not respond in order to (passively) avoid an aversive stimulus

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9
Q

negative reinforcement

A

relief after responding in order to actively avoid an aversive stimulus

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10
Q

elicitation of hormonal and physiological responses

A

rush of adrenaline and fear to avoid a stranger

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11
Q

arbitrary response for rewards; motivational

A

fear elicited by a tone to motivate lever pressing to avoid shock

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12
Q

communication

A

expressing fear tells other members of your species to stay away from the aversive stimulus

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13
Q

social bonding

A

a parent experiencing fear will protect her offspring

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14
Q

mood state dependency, evaluation of memories

A

learning something while afraid will make you more likely to recall that information when you are afraid

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15
Q

storage of memories

A

you knew you were afraid when you saw that scary movie last week at the theatre across from campus

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16
Q

perseveration

A

fear last longer than shock, so rats who are still afraid after the shock stopped will press the level

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17
Q

for each distinct emotion, we need to state…

A
  • under what evolutionary-relevant conditions we experience an emotion
  • how an emotion affects us
  • how behaviour evoked by an emotion solves an evolutionary problem
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18
Q

emotions include 4 temporary changes

A
  • hormones or physiology
  • behaviour, including thinking and feeling
  • facial expression
  • sense perception
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19
Q

what are the three principles of emotions proposed by Charles Darwin based on the fact that emotions are adaptive and function as communication

A
  • serviceable habits
  • antithesis
  • direct action of the excited nervous system on the body
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20
Q

first principle of serviceable habits

A

emphasizes that the way emotions are expressed serves a purpose in nonhuman animals but not people

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21
Q

second principle of antithesis

A

emphasizes how opposite emotions have opposite bodily expressions

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22
Q

third principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body

A

emphasizes how emotions result in perceivable changes in the nervous system

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23
Q

basic emotion theory

A

grew out of Darwin’s theory and suggests that distinct emotions and their associated cognitive, physiological, and motor responses unfold over time in a very predictable pattern without attention or intention

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24
Q

according to James, what is the incorrect sequence of events involved in processing an emotion that we think we experience (perception-experience-expression order)

A
  1. we perceive a physical stimulus in the environment
  2. we experience an emotion
  3. we express that emotion publicly through bodily gestures or moving our facial muscles
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25
Q

the James-Lange theory of emotions

A

people perceive a stimulus, express the emotion the stimulus evokes, and then identify their emotion

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26
Q

what is the James-Lange sequence of events for an emotion

A
  1. we perceive the physical stimulus from the natural environment
  2. we express the emotion publicly, physiological changes occur as a result of perceiving physical stimulus
  3. we acknowledge the privately experienced emotion
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27
Q

how did Cannon countered James’ assumptions about the internal organs being important for processing emotions

A
  • cutting off the CNS from the internal organs should prevent acknowledgement of the emotion, but it doesn’t
  • different physiological responses should occur in different emotional and neutral states, but the physiological responses can be similar when accompanied by emotion or not (heart rate could increase when afraid or from exercising)
  • the internal structures should be more sensitive than the external structures, but the skin is not more sensitive to stimulation than the intestines
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28
Q

the Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotions

A

people perceive a stimulus and then simultaneously express the emotion and identify their emotion.
1. we perceive the physical stimulus in the environment
2. we simultaneously produce bodily or facial expression changes and acknowledge the emotion
the thalamus mediates these emotional reactions and reports back to the cortex (thalamus plays an important role in this theory)

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29
Q

evidence for the important of thalamus for emotions

A
  • rage is evoked by surgically removing the cerebrum in front of the thalamus but disappears when the thalamus is also removed
  • tumours on different sides of the thalamus produce different emotions
  • anesthesia or impairment produces unregulated crying or laughing
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30
Q

what is the difference between the James-Lange and the Cannon-Bard theories of emotions

A

event surrounding the expression of emotion occur sequentially within the James-Lange theory but simultaneously with the help of the thalamus for Cannon-Bard

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31
Q

action unit

A

each emotion has a specific facial expression that we can detect involving movement of the eyebrows, nose, mouth, cheeks, and eyes

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32
Q

what are the four universal emotions

A

happy, anxious, surprised, and disgusted are the basis for more nuanced emotions (contempt, envy, anticipation)

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33
Q

emotional contagion

A

when one person observes and then experiences the same emotion as another person

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34
Q

conditioned emotional response procedure

A

the process of linking an emotional response, through classical conditioning to a neutral stimulus

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35
Q

ontogeny

A

described how an individual developed over a life time, and ontogenetic learning involves the animal-environment interactions that are specific to an individual (怕蛇因為被咬過)

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36
Q

what is the function of ketamine

A

blocks the uptake of glutamate, an amino acid that is connected with arousal of negative emotions, could help people who experience depression or anxiety become less distressed

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37
Q

conspecific

A

a member of their own species

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38
Q

according to Clark Hull, what are the two parts to a conditioned response

A
  • the physical stimulus related to producing rewards that we encounter in the environment
  • the perception of a goal-related stimulus
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39
Q

frustrative events

A

a third type of goal event in which rewards are not as quickly available as they once were or are omitted entirely, thereby leading to frustration (added to Hull’s theory to explain why animals continue to respond longer in extinction when they are frustrated)

40
Q

distressed vocalization / alarm signal

A

used by animals when they’re lost and can’t find their mother or as a call out for help

41
Q

exteroceptive stimuli

A

a type of stimuli that comes from outside our bodies to indicate a change from one state to another, a stimulus that others can also see, hear, feel, touch, etc

42
Q

orosensory stimuli

A

flavour and texture sensations in the mouth

43
Q

interoceptive stimuli

A

a type of stimuli that come from within our bodies to indicate a change from one sate to another (private sensations)

44
Q

flavour conditioning

A

occurs with a lag of around 4 to 6 hours in between the taste of the food and the calories it signals (trace conditioning)

45
Q

what is the function of insulin

A
  • it is made in the pancreas and helps with absorption of blood glucose (sugar)
  • upon smelling of the food, our blood glucose level decreases as our CNS anticipates the insulin injection and prepare for the upcoming change in insulin levels to maintain homeostasis
46
Q

what is the function of ghrelin

A

it is made in the stomach and stimulates appetite

47
Q

what is the function of leptin

A

it is made in adipocytes (fat cells) and suppresses appetite

48
Q

which brain regions are integral to hunger

A
  • hypothalamus: more active and produces proteins to induce eating when hungry and less active when we’re full, it also produces the neuropeptide orexin, which regulates eating when we’re hungry and when we’re eating food without feeling hungry
  • insular cortex: hunger increases the connectivity between posterior and anterior insula, where the primary gustatory cortex is located
  • amygdala: processes food cues and emotions
  • cerebellum: tells us when we’re full and should stop eating
49
Q

satiated

A

the sense of being satisfied or full

50
Q

occasion setters

A

internal or external stimuli that signal the relationship between a response and an outcome (teaches us to eat when we’re hungry but not when we’re satiated)

51
Q

how does artificial sweeteners break the CS-US relationship in eating habit

A

they are supposed to be healthier as they contain no calories but breaking the association between sweetness and calories tend to make rats consume more calories and gain more weight and the normal course of digestion is changed. (don’t feel the normal cues of food satiety, cognitive decline in people, we need another aspect of food as an occasion setter to tell us when sweetness indicate calories or not)

52
Q

conditioned taste/flavour aversions

A

occur to keep us from consuming food that would make us sick or potentially kill us

53
Q

what type of conditioning occurs when hunger serves as an occasion setter for learning about taste

A

Pavlovian conditioning. hunger is an occasion setter, the taste of food is the conditional stimulus, the unconditional stimulus is calories provided by the food. the CS is associated with the UCS

54
Q

what are the three theories about why conditional responses occur

A

preparatory responding, stimulus substitution, and signal substitution

55
Q

functions of saliva

A

helps to break down food as we chew it, helps to dilute acids (makes the taste of acid less intense and neutralizes the acid by increasing the pH level)

56
Q

preparatory responding

A

emphasizes the adaptive properties of the conditional response

57
Q

stimulus substitution

A

a type of conditioning in which an animal respond to the conditional stimulus as if it were interchangeable with the unconditional stimulus (CS substitutes for the US)

58
Q

signal substitution

A

a type of conditioning in which an animal responds to an artificial conditional stimulus as if it were interchangeable with a naturally-occurring conditional stimulus (CS used in the lab substitutes CS occurs in a natural environment)

59
Q

energy budget

A

an animal needs to consume a specific amount of calories in a day to survive

60
Q

forage

A

animals look for an locate food when they need to eat

61
Q

cache

A

food that is saved when food is scarce

62
Q

hoard

A

animals will sometimes store a large number of items in the same place, including some inedible items that don’t need to be stored

63
Q

what are the environmental factors that influences food-related behaivour

A

social norms, disruptive events leading to changes in our diets, portion size

64
Q

how does Pavlovian conditioning affect mating

A

conditional stimuli can enhance sexual conditional responses

65
Q

belongingness

A

a type of cue-consequence learning in which some cues are easier to condition to specific signals than others for enhanced survival

66
Q

good genes hypothesis

A

females tend to choose mates seen to have genetic advantages, thereby increasing offspring quality

67
Q

hermaphrodites

A

an adjective describing an animal that can be either male, contributing sperm, or female, contributing eggs, in a sexual encounter

68
Q

gender ratio hypothesis

A

describes how see slugs (they are hermaphrodites) decide when to contribute sperm and when to receive it. it is more advantageous to fulfill the female role for the first part of a reproductive period, but the male role is favoured with subsequent mating opportunities, which role their fulfill also depends on the size (bigger sea slugs lay larger egg clutches) and the number of sexual partners of the potential mate

69
Q

phermones

A

a type of chemical signal to indicate the reproductive status of a potential partner, it works by increasing attraction or sexual desire for the purpose of reproduction

70
Q

olfactory stimulus

A

a type of stimulus in which animals detect and learn about what scent stimuli predict. we smell something and it changes our behaviour

71
Q

the Bruce effect

A

occur when a female mouse’s (or rat, sheep, horse) pregnancy is terminated within the first few days by a new male

72
Q

the Whitten effect

A

typically produced by introducing a male (or his smell) and can induce ovulation in multiple female rats simultaneously

73
Q

the Coolidge effect

A

occurs when a habituated sexual response increases with a new animal, allowing the male to maximize his mating opportunities and produce more offspring (an animal has multiple mate-pairings with the same partner, loses interest, and experiences renewed sexual interest in a new partner)

74
Q

habituation

A

a type of learning in which an animal is exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly and eventually stops responding to the uninformative stimulus

75
Q

dishabituation

A

an effect when an animal is exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly, stops responding, and responds to the repeated stimulus when there is a change in context, a different stimulus is presented just before it, or there is a rest period

76
Q

mate poaching

A

occurs when an individual expresses sexual interest in an individual that is already in a relationship to get that person to leave their current relationship

77
Q

paternal uncertainty

A

a phenomenon that puts men at a disadvantage because they cannot know directly whether the child their partner is carrying is theirs or someone else’s, which is why when infants look like their fathers, he is more likely to invest resources into their care

78
Q

rivalry sensitivity hypothesis

A

women focus on rivals in their partner’s immediate vicinity while men focus on their parter if a rival is nearby (evolved to help people retain their mates)

79
Q

motivation

A

the cause of behaviour that is closely tied to an antecedents and consequences of behaviours as well as internal drives, it is why we do what we do

80
Q

drive-reduction theory

A

the first theory of motivation produced by Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence stating that need is determined by a combination of learning and a person’s physiology, and need intensity is reflected in the intensity of responding (they also hypothesized that more-emotional participants would show greater reactions to the same moderate level of intensity of an aversive stimulus than less-emotional participants)

81
Q

what is the operant approach to motivation

A

motivation is tied to the preceding stimuli and associated consequences of behaviour. it is the cause of behaviour

82
Q

the Premack principle

A

states that reinforcers are preferred activities and that you’ll do some less preferred activity to access the desirable activity (the reinforcer)

83
Q

motivating operations

A

variables that are extended in time and momentarily change the current frequency of behaviour related to a specific reinforcer (act on antecedent stimulus, behaviour, and consequence contingency) (alter the value of a reward)

84
Q

establishing operations

A

a type of motivating operations that increase the effectiveness of reinforcers and evoke behaviour related to obtaining them

85
Q

abolishing operations

A

a type of motivating operations that decreases the effectiveness of reinforcers and decreases behaviour related to obtaining them

86
Q

hierarchy of needs

A

proposed by Abraham Maslow which is a theory explaining motivation as a series of five human needs and the fulfillment. physiological - safety - love/belonging - esteem - self-actualization - self-transcendence

87
Q

life-sustaining physiological needs

A

food, water, sleep, these are the ones with drive-reduction and reinforcement motivational theories

88
Q

safety needs

A

include creating a secure and stable environment

89
Q

love and belonging

A

building healthy relationships with friends, family, romantic partner

90
Q

esteem needs

A

characterized by the desire to have the respect of others by taking a leadership role or representing others

91
Q

self-actualization needs

A

the tendency to strive for self-improvement and self-enhancement to ultimately achieve our fullest potential

92
Q

self-transcnedence

A

less of a focus on the self and an increase in feelings of connectedness with others in short-term experiences

93
Q

need to belong

A

people need to form close, strong, and lasting interpersonal relationships for their own well-being

94
Q

ostracism

A

is when one member or the whole group ignores and excludes another member or group who is ill, freeloading, or lacks the skills needed to contribute

95
Q

achievement motivation

A

all people have an internal desire or drive to achieve excellence at something, which is reflected in their performance on tasks in that content area

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