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Biotechnology Mid Term > CH1 | Introduction to Molecular Biology > Flashcards

CH1 | Introduction to Molecular Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Molecular biology studies…

A

cellular biochemical and molecular processes.

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2
Q

Nucleic acids are macromolecules made of…

A

nucleotides.

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3
Q

Nucleic acids function to…

A

store and transmit genetic information and regulate protein synthesis.

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4
Q

The two classes of nucleic acids are…

A

DNA and RNA.

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5
Q

DNA stands for…

A

deoxyribonucleic acid.

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6
Q

RNA stands for…

A

ribonucleic acid.

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7
Q

The three components of a nucleotide are…

A

phosphate group, pentose sugar, nitrogenous base.

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8
Q

The phosphate group in nucleotides is…

A

the same in both DNA and RNA.

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9
Q

The pentose sugar in DNA is…

A

deoxyribose.

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10
Q

The pentose sugar in RNA is…

A

ribose.

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11
Q

Difference between ribose and deoxyribose is…

A

2’ carbon in ribose is -OH, 2’ carbon in deoxyribose is -H

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12
Q

The nitrogenous bases in DNA are…

A

adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine.

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13
Q

The nitrogenous bases in RNA are…

A

adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil.

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14
Q

Adenine and guanine are classified as…

A

purines.

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15
Q

Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are classified as…

A

pyrimidines.

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16
Q

In RNA, the base that replaces thymine is…

A

uracil.

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17
Q

Purines are characterized by…

A

a double-ring structure.

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18
Q

Pyrimidines are characterized by…

A

a single-ring structure.

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19
Q

Nucleobase is also known as…

A

a nitrogenous base.

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20
Q

A nucleoside is made of…

A

nucleobase + sugar.

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21
Q

A nucleotide is made of…

A

nucleoside + phosphate.

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22
Q

DNA is described as being…

A

double-stranded, complementary, and antiparallel.

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23
Q

Double-stranded means…

A

two strands of nucleotides.

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24
Q

Complementary means…

A

bases pair up according to specific rules (A-T, C-G).

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25
Q

Antiparallel means…

A

the two strands run in opposite directions (5’ to 3’ and 3’ to 5’).

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26
Q

DNA has directionality, which is…

A

5’ to 3’.

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27
Q

In DNA, A bonds with…

A

T (via 2 hydrogen bonds).

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28
Q

In DNA, C bonds with…

A

G (via 3 hydrogen bonds).

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29
Q

DNA forms a double helix because…

A

the nucleotides of the two strands wrap around each other.

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30
Q

RNA is typically…

A

single-stranded.

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31
Q

RNA carries genetic information from…

A

DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

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32
Q

RNA’s primary function is to…

A

build proteins.

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33
Q

The two main categories of RNA are…

A

coding and non-coding RNA.

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34
Q

mRNA is a type of…

A

coding RNA.

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35
Q

tRNA, rRNA, lncRNA are types of…

A

non-coding RNA (ncRNA).

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36
Q

miRNA, snoRNA, siRNA, snRNA are types of…

A

small ncRNA.

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37
Q

The four nucleobases of RNA are…

A

Uracil, Cytosine, Adenine, Guanine.

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38
Q

A gene is a section of…

A

DNA.

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39
Q

Genes contain instructions for…

A

building proteins.

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40
Q

Genes store information that is…

A

passed down through generations.

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41
Q

Gene size varies from…

A

a few hundred bp to over 2 million bp.

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42
Q

“bp” in the context of genes stands for…

A

base pairs.

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43
Q

The Human Genome Project estimated that humans have about…

A

20,687 protein-coding genes.

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44
Q

Genes are located in the…

A

cell nucleus.

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45
Q

Gene is part of a structure called…

A

chromosome.

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46
Q

Eukaryotic genes’ structure consists of…

A

an upstream regulatory sequence, an open reading frame and a downstream regulatory sequence.

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47
Q

The open reading frame (ORF) contains…

A

exons and introns.

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48
Q

Exons are…

A

protein-encoding DNA sequences (1.5%).

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49
Q

Introns are…

A

non-coding segments removed by splicing (>98%).

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50
Q

The 5’ upstream regulatory sequence contains the…

A

promoter region.

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51
Q

The promoter region controls…

A

gene expression.

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52
Q

The 3’ downstream regulatory sequence regulates…

A

termination of gene expression.

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53
Q

Enhancer/Silencer regions are located in…

A

distal control elements (upstream or downstream)

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54
Q

Terminator sequence are located in…

A

downstream regulatory sequence.

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55
Q

TATA box is located in…

A

promoter region.

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56
Q

Poly-A tail is located in…

A

downstream regulatory sequence (after the last exon).

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57
Q

An organism’s full set of genes is called the…

A

genome.

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58
Q

Humans have approximately … base pairs.

A

3 billion

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59
Q

Humans have a total of … chromosomes, … from each parent.

A

46, 23

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60
Q

Humans have approximately … base pairs.

A

3 billion

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61
Q

Different forms of genes are called…

A

alleles.

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62
Q

Alleles are…

A

Different forms of the same gene.

63
Q

A fixed position on a chromosome where a gene is located is called a…

A

locus (loci).

64
Q

Locus is…

A

the specific location of a gene on a chromosome.

65
Q

Homologous chromosomes are…

A

chromosome pairs, one from each parent.

66
Q

Homozygous means…

A

having two identical alleles for a gene.

67
Q

Heterozygous means…

A

having two different alleles for a gene.

68
Q

Humans have … chromosomes in every cell.

A

46

69
Q

Autosomes (1-22) are…

A

diploid.

70
Q

Diploid means…

A

having two sets of homologous chromosomes.

71
Q

Haploid means…

A

having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.

72
Q

The number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species is called…

A

a karyotype.

73
Q

When not being replicated or transcribed, DNA is stored in…

A

thread-like structures inside the nucleus.

74
Q

DNA is packaged to…

A

protect it and aid in DNA replication.

75
Q

Chromosomes have a constricted region called the…

A

centromere.

76
Q

The ends of chromosomes are called…

A

telomeres.

77
Q

Chromosomes have a short arm called the…

A

p arm.

78
Q

Chromosomes have a long arm called the…

A

q arm.

79
Q

Based on centromere position, the 4 types of chromosomes are…

A

metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric.

80
Q

Telomeres are located at…

A

the ends of chromosomes.

81
Q

Telomeres are made of…

A

non-coding repetitive DNA sequences.

82
Q

The specific DNA sequence of telomeres is…

A

5’-TTAGGG-3’.

83
Q

Telomeres function to…

A

maintain chromosome structural integrity.

84
Q

Telomeres prevent attack by…

A

enzymes.

85
Q

As cells divide, telomeres…

A

shorten.

86
Q

Telomere shortening eventually leads to…

A

cell senescence (cell stops dividing).

87
Q

DNA replication is the process by which a cell…

A

makes an identical copy of its DNA.

88
Q

DNA replication is essential for…

A

the transmission of genetic information to the next generation.

89
Q

In eukaryotic cells, DNA replication occurs in the…

A

nucleus.

90
Q

In prokaryotic cells, DNA replication occurs in the…

A

cytoplasm.

91
Q

DNA replication occurs during the…

A

S phase of interphase.

92
Q

During the cell cycle, DNA Synthesis happens in the…

A

S phase.

93
Q

Interphase consists of…

A

G1, S, and G2 phases.

94
Q

DNA replication is described as…

A

semi-conservative.

95
Q

Semi-conservative replication means…

A

each new DNA molecule has one old strand and one new strand.

96
Q

Each strand in a DNA molecule serves as a…

A

template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand.

97
Q

Template strand is…

A

the original DNA strand used to synthesize a new strand.

98
Q

Complementary strand is…

A

the new DNA strand synthesized using the template strand.

99
Q

Semi-conservative replication ensures that…

A

genetic information is accurately transmitted to the next generation.

100
Q

Semi-conservative replication allows for genetic variation through…

A

mutations during DNA replication.

101
Q

The three stages of DNA replication are…

A

initiation, elongation, and termination.

102
Q

DNA replication begins at specific locations called…

A

origins of replication.

103
Q

The origin of replication is located by…

A

pre-replication protein complexes.

104
Q

The enzyme that temporarily breaks the DNA backbone to unwind it is…

A

topoisomerase.

105
Q

The enzyme that unwinds DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds is…

A

helicase.

106
Q

The enzyme that “unzips” the DNA is…

A

helicase.

107
Q

Proteins that stabilize the unwound DNA are…

A

single-stranded binding proteins (SSBs).

108
Q

The Y-shaped structure formed during initiation is called the…

A

replication fork.

109
Q

During replication, each DNA strand acts as a…

A

template that is replicated differently.

110
Q

In DNA replication, new nucleotides are added in the … direction.

A

5’ to 3’

111
Q

The enzyme that adds a short RNA primer to start replication in the leading strand is…

A

primase.

112
Q

The leading strand is synthesized…

A

continuously, towards the replication fork.

113
Q

The enzyme that adds new nucleotides to the leading strand is…

A

DNA polymerase (δ and ε).

114
Q

The lagging strand is synthesized…

A

discontinuously, away from the replication fork.

115
Q

The short DNA fragments synthesized on the lagging strand are…

A

Okazaki fragments.

116
Q

On the lagging strand, numerous … are needed.

A

RNA primers.

117
Q

Okazaki fragments are approximately … base pairs long.

A

100-200

118
Q

The enzyme that removes RNA primers is…

A

RNase H.

119
Q

After RNA primer removal, the gap is filled by…

A

DNA polymerase.

120
Q

The enzyme that joins Okazaki fragments is…

A

DNA ligase.

121
Q

DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments by forming…

A

phosphodiester bonds.

122
Q

The role of DNA ligase is to…

A

connect DNA fragments by forming phosphodiester bonds between them.

123
Q

Exonuclease is…

A

an enzyme that removes RNA primers (e.g. RNase H).

124
Q

At the end of replication, the lagging strand is…

A

shorter than the leading strand.

125
Q

The RNA primer at the end of the lagging strand cannot be replaced with DNA because…

A

there is no free 3’ OH group for DNA polymerase to add to.

126
Q

The end replication problem leads to a gap in the…

A

newly synthesized DNA strand at the end of the chromosome.

127
Q

The extreme 5’ end of the lagging strand…

A

is not replicated.

128
Q

The enzyme that extends telomeres is…

A

telomerase.

129
Q

Telomerase binds to the…

A

3’ overhang of the telomere.

130
Q

Telomerase uses … as a template

A

internal telomerase RNA

131
Q

Telomerase extends the telomere by adding…

A

DNA nucleotides complementary to its internal RNA template.

132
Q

After telomerase extends the 3’ overhang, … can bind, which extends…

A

DNA Polymerase α, an RNA primer to synthesize a complementary strand.

133
Q

Approximately, … nucleotides need to be correctly inserted during DNA replication in a human diploid cell.

A

6 billion

134
Q

DNA polymerases can make mistakes, leading to…

A

base mismatches.

135
Q

Most replication errors are corrected by…

A

DNA polymerase itself.

136
Q

The specific type of DNA polymerase that proofreads is…

A

DNA polymerase β.

137
Q

DNA polymerase β has what type of activity for proofreading?

A

3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity.

138
Q

After the mispaired nucleotide is removed, DNA polymerase…

A

fills the gap with the correct nucleotides.

139
Q

The enzyme that seals the gap after error correction is…

A

DNA ligase.

140
Q

The enzyme that relieves torsional strain ahead of the replication fork is…

A

topoisomerase.

141
Q

Topoisomerase relieves torsional strain by…

A

breaking and rejoining DNA strands.

142
Q

The enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix at the replication fork is…

A

helicase.

143
Q

Helicase unwinds DNA by…

A

breaking hydrogen bonds between the two strands.

144
Q

The proteins that bind to single-stranded DNA and prevent it from reannealing are…

A

single-stranded binding proteins (SSBs).

145
Q

The enzyme that synthesizes short RNA primers is…

A

primase.

146
Q

Primase provides a starting point for…

A

DNA polymerase.

147
Q

The main enzyme that adds nucleotides to the new DNA strand is…

A

DNA polymerase (δ and ε).

148
Q

DNA polymerase (δ and ε) adds nucleotides in the … direction

A

5’ to 3’

149
Q

The enzyme that extends the complementary strand from an RNA primer is…

A

DNA polymerase α.

150
Q

DNA polymerase α helps solve…

A

the end of replication problem.

151
Q

The enzyme that has a proofreading function is…

A

DNA polymerase β.

152
Q

The enzyme that cleaves the RNA primer is…

A

exonuclease.

153
Q

The enzyme that joins Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand is…

A

DNA ligase.

Biotechnology Mid Term (9 decks)

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