CH. 7: Learning

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

The acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

Question 2

Nonassociative Learning - Cognitive learning (studying), Perceptual learning

Answer 2

• Habituation - stop responding to a repeated stimulus
• Sensitization - Increased response to a repeated stimulus
• Implicit Learning & Implicit Memory - Learning without awareness (riding a bike)
• Perceptual Learning - enhanced perception via learning (music, x-rays, chess)

Question 3

Associative Learning

Answer 3

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Observational Learning

Question 4

Classical Conditioning aka Respondent Conditioning

Answer 4

A neutral stimulus produces a response originally elicited naturally following being paired with the natural stimulus

Ivan Pavlov

• Classical conditioning: When a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response; first studied by Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

Question 5

Operant Conditioning aka Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 5

Behavior initiated by the individual that modifies the environment (consequences) in turn modifying individual behavior

B. F. Skinner

Operant and Classical Conditioning - Behaviorists, Behaviorism

• Voluntary behavior that changes the learner (brain plasticity) via the consequences of that behavior. Behavior is governed by its consequences.
• Operant conditioning: Type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether the behavior will be repeated in the future

Question 6

The Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Answer 6

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

• Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

Unconditioned response (UR)

• Reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

• Stimulus that is initially neutral and produces a reliable response in an organism

Conditioned response (CR)

• Reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

Question 7

Classical Conditioning Is not just about dogs salivating to a bell

Answer 7

US and CS likely have a preexisting relationship in the natural environment.

Linking together different features of an object or situation

e.g. A dog bite and the dog, sexual arousal and arousing stimulus, time of day and hunger, smell and fear (ever been sprayed by a skunk?)

Question 8

Classical Conditioning:
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 8

In classical conditioning, the CS (the tone) is originally neutral and produces no specific response. After several trials pairing the CS with the US (the food), the CS (the tone) alone comes to elicit the salivary response (the CR, the salivation). Learning tends to take place fairly rapidly and then levels off as stable responding develops. In extinction, the CR diminishes quickly until it no longer occurs.

A rest period, however, is typically followed by spontaneous recovery of the CR. In fact, a well-learned CR may show spontaneous recovery after more than one rest period, even though there have been no additional learning trials.

Question 9

Classical Conditioning:
Generalization

Answer 9

Process by which the CR is observed, even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition (say a change in the tone)

Question 10

Classical Conditioning:
Discrimination

Answer 10

Capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli (different tones)

Question 11

Classical Conditioning:
Second order conditioning

Answer 11

(pairing the CS, the tone, with a new UCS, say a black square)

Question 12

Classical Conditioning:
Conditioned Emotional Responses: The Case of Little Albert

Answer 12

• Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned a 9-month-old baby (Albert) to fear a white rat (by striking a steel bar whenever he was presented with the rat).
• “Little Albert” also showed stimulus generalization to white objects

Question 13

The Development of Operant Conditioning: The Law of Effect

Answer 13

Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) focused on instrumental behaviors; he created a puzzle box to show the law of effect.

Law of effect: Principle that behaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated and those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated

Question 14

Operant Conditioning:
Operant behavior

Answer 14

Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the individual; coined by B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

• Demonstrated using the operant chamber or Skinner Box

Question 15

Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcer

Answer 15

Any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it; more effective than punishment in promoting learning

• Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement (cessation of punishment - ending time-out)

Question 16

Operant Conditioning:
Punisher

Answer 16

Any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

• Positive punishment and negative punishment (cessation of reward - time-out))

Question 17

Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement and Punishment, Positive and Negative

Answer 17

Table on Slide 19:
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1IOkdaXTUlynq2dMcAcn6-aXjIwrLSFEENmi5uJ16MJI/edit#slide=id.g3d93cc54cd_0_493

Question 18

Operant Conditioning:
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement and Punishment

Answer 18

Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs.

• Examples: food, comfort, shelter, warmth

Secondary reinforcers are associated with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning. (recall the discussion of how widespread classical condition is)

• Examples: verbal approval, trophies, money

Question 19

Operant Conditioning:
Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcement and Punishment

Answer 19

Reinforcers lose effectiveness as time passes.
Delaying reinforcement renders it almost to completely ineffective.

Punishment must be close to the actual behavior

Question 20

Operant Conditioning:
Extinction

Answer 20

More complicated in operant conditioning than in classical conditioning

• It depends, in part, on how often reinforcement is received.
• Depends on schedule of reinforcement

Question 21

Operant Conditioning:
Schedules of Reinforcement

Answer 21

• Skinner observed that an organism responds in the pattern with which reinforcement appeared.
• These are schedules of reinforcement.
• Interval schedules are based on time intervals between reinforcements.
• Ratio schedules are based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements.

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• Fixed-interval schedule (FI): Reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided the appropriate response is made.
• Variable-interval schedule (VI): Behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement.
• Fixed-ratio schedule (FR): Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made.
• Variable-ratio schedule (VR): Delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses.
• Intermittent reinforcement: When only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement; produces slightly higher rates of responding and responses are more resistant to extinction (intermittent-reinforcement effect)

Question 22

Operant Conditioning:
Schedules of punishment

Answer 22

Response suppression generally greater with variable punishment in the face of extinction, i.e., it takes longer to see the suppression extinguish.

Question 23

Operant Conditioning:
Shaping Through Successive Approximations

Answer 23

Shaping: Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

Question 24

Operant Conditioning:
Superstitious Behavior

Answer 24

Aka, Correlation is not causation or two events coincidental with each other followed by a reward leads to superstitious behavior. (Like a spurious correlation)

Question 25

Cognitive Elements of Operant Conditioning

Answer 25

Intrinsic vs extrinsic reward:

Motivation Effects

Question 26

Observational Learning - Social Learning

Answer 26

Imitation

Social Learning Theory (aka, observational Learning) ( e.g.,Albert Bandura and the Bobo doll studies of modeled aggression)

High esteemed model = More likely modeling of behavior

“Only a fool learns from their own behavior. I learn from the behavior of others.” Bismark

Question 27

Neural Elements of Observational Learning

Answer 27

Mirror neurons fire to produce observational learning in humans as well as other animal species.

• Represented in the frontal and parietal lobes

fMRI studies show the same brain areas to be activated when one engages in a task or observes another engage in the task.

Emotional Contagion: Contagious behavior is a form of observational learning

Yawning?

Question 28

Learning in the Educational Context: Cognitive Learning

Answer 28

Team of psychologists who specialize in learning recently published a comprehensive analysis of research concerning learning techniques that are used by students.

Techniques for learning

Knowing about knowing: Metacognition