CH. 7: Learning Flashcards
Learning
The acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner
Nonassociative Learning - Cognitive learning (studying), Perceptual learning
- Habituation - stop responding to a repeated stimulus
- Sensitization - Increased response to a repeated stimulus
- Implicit Learning & Implicit Memory - Learning without awareness (riding a bike)
- Perceptual Learning - enhanced perception via learning (music, x-rays, chess)
Associative Learning
- Classical Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning
- Observational Learning
Classical Conditioning aka Respondent Conditioning
A neutral stimulus produces a response originally elicited naturally following being paired with the natural stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
- Classical conditioning: When a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response; first studied by Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
Operant Conditioning aka Instrumental Conditioning
Behavior initiated by the individual that modifies the environment (consequences) in turn modifying individual behavior
B. F. Skinner
Operant and Classical Conditioning - Behaviorists, Behaviorism
- Voluntary behavior that changes the learner (brain plasticity) via the consequences of that behavior. Behavior is governed by its consequences.
- Operant conditioning: Type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether the behavior will be repeated in the future
The Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
- Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
Unconditioned response (UR)
- Reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
- Stimulus that is initially neutral and produces a reliable response in an organism
Conditioned response (CR)
- Reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
Classical Conditioning Is not just about dogs salivating to a bell
US and CS likely have a preexisting relationship in the natural environment.
Linking together different features of an object or situation
e.g. A dog bite and the dog, sexual arousal and arousing stimulus, time of day and hunger, smell and fear (ever been sprayed by a skunk?)
Classical Conditioning:
Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
In classical conditioning, the CS (the tone) is originally neutral and produces no specific response. After several trials pairing the CS with the US (the food), the CS (the tone) alone comes to elicit the salivary response (the CR, the salivation). Learning tends to take place fairly rapidly and then levels off as stable responding develops. In extinction, the CR diminishes quickly until it no longer occurs.
A rest period, however, is typically followed by spontaneous recovery of the CR. In fact, a well-learned CR may show spontaneous recovery after more than one rest period, even though there have been no additional learning trials.
Classical Conditioning:
Generalization
Process by which the CR is observed, even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition (say a change in the tone)
Classical Conditioning:
Discrimination
Capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli (different tones)
Classical Conditioning:
Second order conditioning
(pairing the CS, the tone, with a new UCS, say a black square)
Classical Conditioning:
Conditioned Emotional Responses: The Case of Little Albert
- Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned a 9-month-old baby (Albert) to fear a white rat (by striking a steel bar whenever he was presented with the rat).
- “Little Albert” also showed stimulus generalization to white objects
The Development of Operant Conditioning: The Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) focused on instrumental behaviors; he created a puzzle box to show the law of effect.
Law of effect: Principle that behaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated and those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated
Operant Conditioning:
Operant behavior
Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the individual; coined by B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
- Demonstrated using the operant chamber or Skinner Box
Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcer
Any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it; more effective than punishment in promoting learning
- Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement (cessation of punishment - ending time-out)
Operant Conditioning:
Punisher
Any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
- Positive punishment and negative punishment (cessation of reward - time-out))
Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement and Punishment, Positive and Negative
Table on Slide 19:
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1IOkdaXTUlynq2dMcAcn6-aXjIwrLSFEENmi5uJ16MJI/edit#slide=id.g3d93cc54cd_0_493
Operant Conditioning:
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement and Punishment
Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs.
- Examples: food, comfort, shelter, warmth
Secondary reinforcers are associated with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning. (recall the discussion of how widespread classical condition is)
- Examples: verbal approval, trophies, money
Operant Conditioning:
Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcers lose effectiveness as time passes.
Delaying reinforcement renders it almost to completely ineffective.
Punishment must be close to the actual behavior
Operant Conditioning:
Extinction
More complicated in operant conditioning than in classical conditioning
- It depends, in part, on how often reinforcement is received.
- Depends on schedule of reinforcement
Operant Conditioning:
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Skinner observed that an organism responds in the pattern with which reinforcement appeared.
- These are schedules of reinforcement.
- Interval schedules are based on time intervals between reinforcements.
- Ratio schedules are based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements.
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- Fixed-interval schedule (FI): Reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided the appropriate response is made.
- Variable-interval schedule (VI): Behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement.
- Fixed-ratio schedule (FR): Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made.
- Variable-ratio schedule (VR): Delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses.
- Intermittent reinforcement: When only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement; produces slightly higher rates of responding and responses are more resistant to extinction (intermittent-reinforcement effect)
Operant Conditioning:
Schedules of punishment
Response suppression generally greater with variable punishment in the face of extinction, i.e., it takes longer to see the suppression extinguish.
Operant Conditioning:
Shaping Through Successive Approximations
Shaping: Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior
Operant Conditioning:
Superstitious Behavior
Aka, Correlation is not causation or two events coincidental with each other followed by a reward leads to superstitious behavior. (Like a spurious correlation)
Cognitive Elements of Operant Conditioning
Intrinsic vs extrinsic reward:
Motivation Effects
Observational Learning - Social Learning
Imitation
Social Learning Theory (aka, observational Learning) ( e.g.,Albert Bandura and the Bobo doll studies of modeled aggression)
High esteemed model = More likely modeling of behavior
“Only a fool learns from their own behavior. I learn from the behavior of others.” Bismark
Neural Elements of Observational Learning
Mirror neurons fire to produce observational learning in humans as well as other animal species.
- Represented in the frontal and parietal lobes
fMRI studies show the same brain areas to be activated when one engages in a task or observes another engage in the task.
Emotional Contagion: Contagious behavior is a form of observational learning
Yawning?
Learning in the Educational Context: Cognitive Learning
Team of psychologists who specialize in learning recently published a comprehensive analysis of research concerning learning techniques that are used by students.
Techniques for learning
Knowing about knowing: Metacognition
