Ch. 6 - Ethics In Research

Question 1

3 Major Ethical Approaches

Answer 1

1. Deontological
2. Ethical skepticism
3. Utilitarianism

Question 2

Deontological Approach to Ethics

Answer 2

Judges ethical issues on the basis of some universal code, a higher set of principles.

Deon = Greek for duty or obligation.

It is ones duty to follow this code without variation.

Question 3

Ethical Skepticism Approach to Ethics

Answer 3

Ethical decisions are a matter of each individual’s conscience.

Ethical rules are arbitrary and relative to individual people and cultures.

Question 4

Utilitarianism

Answer 4

Judgements should depend on consequences the study might have, including benefits and costs.

Approach typically used in research.

Can include consideration of ideas from deontological and ethical skepticism approaches.

Question 5

Ethical Concerns

Answer 5

1. Relationship between society and science
   - Should societal concerns and values direct research?
   - Who should decide what research is funded and conducted?
2. Professional issues:
   - Research misconduct such as falsifying, fabricating, and plagarizing
   - Misconduct - Nonpersonal: pressure to publish, get grants
   - Misconduct - Personal: psychological state
   - Misconduct Deterrants - ethical guidelines, IRB, integrity, morality
3. Treatment of Research Participants
   - Minimize psychological and physical harm
   - Maximize benefits

Question 6

Ethical Guidelines

Answer 6

Several organizations have established a set of ethical guidelines for research:

• American Educational Research Association
• American Psychological Association
• Others

Question 7

Informed Consent

Answer 7

Agreeing to participate after being informed of all aspects of study that might effect willingness to participate. Eg, purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, alternative procedures, limits to confidentiality

When study involves minimal risk, informed consent sometimes waived if:

• participation is anonymous
• cultural norms preclude getting it
• signing form would subject person to legal, social or economic risk
• decision about this is made by IRB

Question 8

Informed Consent Form Content

Answer 8

1. Purpose and Description - Purpose of study with description of procedures to follow and time required for participant to complete study
2. Risks - Description of physical or psychological risks or discomforts
3. Benefits - Description of benefits the participant or others might expect
4. Alternatives - Description of any alternative procedure or treatment that might be of benefit to participant
5. Confidentiality - Statement of the extent to which results will be kept confidential
6. Contacts - Names of people the participant can contact with questions about research or rights
7. Voluntary - Statement indicating participation is voluntary and participant can withdraw at any time with no penalty
8. Payment - Statement of the amount and schedule of payment if any
9. Easily Understandable - Information should be written at an eight-grade level, in certain cases sixth-grade level

Question 9

Informed Consent for Minors

Answer 9

Consent is required from parent or legal guardian.

Assent must also be obtained from minor.

Assent - minor agrees to participate after being informed of all aspects of the study that might affect willingness to participate.

Question 10

Active Consent

Answer 10

Reading and signing the consent form.

Best to use in most cases.

Question 11

Passive Consent

Answer 11

Consent by not returning the form.

Eg, form says return only if minor cannot participate

Question 12

Additional Consent

Answer 12

School research:

• Teachers
• Principals
• Superintendent

Often required by IRB prior to study approval.

Question 13

Deception

Answer 13

Researcher provides misleading info or withholds info from participant about nature of study.

• Violates principle of informed consent.
• Ethical standards recognize that it has to be used in some studies.
• Should not use any more devotion than needed to conduct valid study.

Question 14

Debriefing

Answer 14

Post-study interview explaining all aspects of study including purpose and deception, and to discuss any questions.

Goals:

1. Dehoaxing - debrief participants about reasons for deception and reasons for its attempt to restore trust
2. Desensitizing - attempt to eliminate any stress or undesirable feelings created by study, explain that their behaviour is normal

Question 15

Freedom to Withdraw

Answer 15

Participants have right to withdraw at any time.

Accomplishing this means assuring no coercive pressure to participate is felt by participants.

Special consideration must be given to minors to ensure no coercive pressure is felt.

Question 16

Protection from Mental and Physical Harm

Answer 16

Usually not an issue in educational research.

Qualitative research has features that might exclude it from being exempt from IRB oversight:

• Intimacy
• Open-endedness

Question 17

Privacy

Answer 17

Controlling others access to information about you.

Question 18

Anonymity

Answer 18

The identity of participants is not known to the researcher.

Question 19

Confidentiality

Answer 19

Only the research investigators know the identity of participants.

May be legal requirement about when it must be breached - such as child abuse, neglect, harm to self or others.

Question 20

IRB

Answer 20

Institutional Review Board

Ethical standards review of proposed research

Reviews studies for ethical acceptability

Researcher must submit IRB Protocol for review by IRB

Question 21

Example IRB Protocol

Answer 21

Exhibit 6.6 - Example of a Research Protocol Submitted to IRB

Title of Protocol
Primary Investigator
Co-Investigator
Relevant Background and Purpose
Participant Population
Materials and Procedure
- Overview
- Questionnaires
- Experimental Tasks
- Instructional Formats
Design and Methodology
Potential Benefit
Risks
Confidentiality
Signatures - Primary Investigator, Dept. Chairperson
Dates

Question 22

Ethics

Answer 22

Principles and guidelines that help us uphold the things we value

Question 23

Categories of IRB Review

Answer 23

1. Exempt - From certain requirements and full committee review. Determined by IRB, not researcher.
2. Expedited - Rapid review by several IRB members. Typically studies involving:
   - no more than minimal risk
   - data collected for non- research purposes (records)
   - data collected from videos, images, audio for research purposes
   - surveys, interviews, other minimal risk situations
3. Full Board Review

Question 24

IRB Exempt Categories

Answer 24

Table 6.4 -Exempt Categories

1. Research conducted in established educational settings involving normal educational practices, such as:
   a. Research on regular or special Ed. Instructional strategies
   b. Research on effectiveness of or comparison among instructional techniques, curricula, or classroom mgmt. methods
2. Research involving use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures, or observation of public behavior, unless:
   a. Information obtained is recorded in such a manner that the participants can be identified, directly or through identifiers linked to participants, and
   b. Any disclosure of the participants responses outside the research could reasonably place the participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the participants financial standing, employability, or reputation
3. Research involving use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures, or observation of public behavior that is not exempt under 2 above if:
   a. Participants are elected or appointed public officials or candidates for public office, or
   b. Federal states require without exception that the confidentiality of the personally identifiable information will be maintained throughout the research and thereafter
4. Research involving collection or study of existing data, documents, records, pathological specimens, or diagnostic specimens if these sources are publicly available or if the information is recorded by the investigator in such a manner that participants cannot be identified, directly or through identifiers linked to participants
5. Research and demonstration projects that are conducted by or subject to the approval of department or agency heads and that are designed to study, evaluate or examine:
   a. Public benefit or service programs
   b. Procedures for obtaining benefits or services under those programs
   c. Possible changes in or alternatives to those programs or procedures, or
   d. Possible changes in methods or levels of payment for benefits or services under those programs

Question 25

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

Answer 25

Informed Consent:

• Is it necessary?
• What is public and private?
• How obtain consent?

Maintaining privacy and confidentiality can be difficult.

Debriefing might be needed just as in other research.

Question 26

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

Answer 26

Authorship - identifying individuals responsible for research (who makes substantial contribution)

Writing the research report:

• Plagarism- self and others
• Short vs. long quotations are quoted differently. Short uses quote marks, long uses block indentation technique