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BIOL101 > Ch. 6-8 > Flashcards

Ch. 6-8 Flashcards

Cells, membranes, and enzymes

1
Q

cell

A

is the simplest unit necessary for all the activities of life

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2
Q

Robert Hooke

A

used the first microscope and coined the term “cell”

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3
Q

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

A

the father of microbiology

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4
Q

magnification

A

the process of making an object appear larger when viewed through a microscope or other optical devices

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5
Q

resolution

A

a measure of image clarity

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6
Q

contrast

A

the difference in light intensity between a sample and its background (ex: staining samples)

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7
Q

plasma membrane

A

the membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, regulating the cell’s chemical composition

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8
Q

cytoplasm

A

the contents of the cell bounded by the plasma membrane, in eukaryotes, the portion exclusive of the nucleus

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9
Q

chromosomes

A

organizing units of DNA

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10
Q

ribosomes

A

complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein; sites of protein synthesis

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11
Q

bacteria cell walls

A

composed of peptidoglycan; typically a singular circular DNA based chromosome

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12
Q

nucleoid

A

a region in a prokaryotic cell that contains most or all of the cell’s genetic material

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13
Q

capsule

A

a protective, gelatinous layer that surrounds the cell wall of certain bacteria and some fungi, typically composed of polysaccharides, which acts as a barrier against harmful substances and helps the cell adhere to surfaces

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14
Q

flagella

A

microscopic hair-like structures involved in the locomotion of a cell

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15
Q

fimbriae

A

thin, hair-like protein appendages found on the surface of bacterial cells, which function to help the bacteria adhere to surfaces by acting as attachment points to specific receptors on host cells

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16
Q

Why are most cells microscopic?

A

-oxygen and nutrients need to diffuse across the plasma membrane into the cell and wastes need to diffuse out of the cell
-cells must maintain a high surface area to volume ratio
-more surface area provides cells with more contact points with the environment

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17
Q

prokaryotes

A

single cell organisms that do not have a nucleus or other organelles

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18
Q

eukaryotes

A

have a nucleus and other internal membrane bound organelles

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19
Q

nucleus

A

a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes

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20
Q

chromosomes

A

cellular structures carrying genetic material found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells; consists of a very long DNA molecule and associated proteins

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21
Q

chromatin

A

the complex of DNA and proteins that make up eukaryotic chromosomes

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22
Q

nucleolus

A

a specialized region within a nucleus that contains the genes from multiple chromosomes that code for rRNA; primarily responsible for producing and assembling the cell’s ribosomes, which are imported from the cytoplasm

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23
Q

nuclear envelope

A

double membrane that surrounds the nucleus; a complex structure that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells

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24
Q

nuclear pore complex

A

mediates transport of all macromolecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

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25
Q

nuclear lamina

A

a netlike array of protein filaments that lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope and helps maintain the shape of the nucleus

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26
Q

nuclear matrix

A

a framework of protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior

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27
Q

endomembrane system

A

the collection of membranes inside and surrounding a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membraneous vesicles

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28
Q

free ribosomes

A

are suspended in the cytosol

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29
Q

cytosol

A

the semifluid portion of the cytoplasm

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30
Q

bound ribosomes

A

are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum

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31
Q

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

an extensive membraneous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous in the outer nuclear membrane

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32
Q

lumen or cisternal space

A

interior of the ER that is separate from the cytosol

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33
Q

smooth ER

A

does not have ribosomes attached to its surface; the site for lipid synthesis (including steroids), metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons, storage of calcium ions

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34
Q

rough ER

A

does have ribosomes attached to its surface; protein synthesis (including hormones)

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35
Q

transport vesicles

A

small, membrane bound sacs that function to move molecules like proteins and lipids between different organelles within a cell

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36
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

shipping and receiving center of a cell

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37
Q

cisternae

A

flat stacks of membrane found in the ER and Golgi apparatus

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38
Q

cis face

A

the receiving side of the Golgi that faces the ER; transport vesicles coming from ER fuse to the cis face of Golgi

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39
Q

trans face

A

the shipping side of the Golgi that faces away from the ER; transport vesicles leaving the Golgi exit from the trans face

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40
Q

lysosomes

A

a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes used to digest macromolecules

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41
Q

phagocytosis

A

when large particulate substances or small organisms are taken up by a cell (cellular “eating”)

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42
Q

autophagy

A

a natural process that helps cells recycle and break down damaged or unnecessary parts (“self-eating”)

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43
Q

vacuoles

A

large vesicles produced from the ER and Golgi; a membrane-bound organelle within a cell that functions as a storage compartment, filled with fluid and containing various substances like water, nutrients, waste products, and pigments

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44
Q

mitochondria

A

sites of cellular respiration; use oxygen to extract energy from sugars and fats to generate ATP

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45
Q

mitochondrial matrix

A

the compartment of mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing the enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle, as well as ribosomes and DNA

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46
Q

citric acid cycle

A

produces substrates for the electron transport chain

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47
Q

mitochondrial membranes

A

inner and outer membrane

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48
Q

cristae

A

folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria that increase the surface area for chemical reactions to take place

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49
Q

inner membrane

A

is much more selective, acting as a barrier to most ions and molecules, crucial for maintaining the proton gradient necessary for ATP production

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50
Q

outer membrane

A

is highly permeable to small molecules due to the presence of porin proteins

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51
Q

Endosymbiont Theory

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as prokaryotic cells engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. the engulfed cell and its host cell then evolved into a single organism

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52
Q

chloroplasts

A

organelles found in plants and algae that are the sites of photosynthesis

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53
Q

chlorophyll

A

the green pigment located within chloroplasts necessary for capturing light

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54
Q

thylakoids

A

membrane-bound compartments in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria that are responsible for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

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55
Q

granum

A

a coin-shaped stack of thylakoids, which are the membrane-like structures found inside the chloroplasts of plant cells

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56
Q

cytoskeleton

A

a network of protein fibers that extend throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical, transport, and signaling functions

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57
Q

stroma

A

area between the inner membrane and the thylakoids

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58
Q

motor proteins

A

a protein that interacts with cytoskeletal elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell

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59
Q

microtubules

A

support the cell and provide compression resistance

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60
Q

centrosomes

A

a cellular organelle that functions as the primary microtubule organizing center in animal cells

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61
Q

centrioles

A

barrel-shaped organelles that play a key role in cell division and organization

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62
Q

cilia

A

a small, hair-like projection that extends from the surface of a cell, often found in large numbers on a single cell, and functions to move fluid or particles across the cell surface by beating back and forth

63
Q

convergent evolution

A

the process where distantly related organisms independently evolve similar cellular features or functions, often as a response to similar environmental pressures, resulting in analogous structures that perform similar tasks despite having different evolutionary origins (ex: flagella in prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells)

64
Q

chemoheterotrophic

A

refers to an organism that obtains its energy from the oxidation of organic compounds (ex: E. coli)

65
Q

photosynthetic bacteria

A

a group of prokaryotes that use light to make energy

66
Q

microfilaments

A

also known as actin filaments; are protein filaments in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that are part of the cytoskeleton

67
Q

order of the 3 types of filaments in the cytoskeleton from largest to smallest

A

microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments

68
Q

myosin

A

a motor protein that binds to actin and uses the energy of ATP to walk along an actin microfilament

69
Q

cell’s cortex

A

a three dimensional network of actin filaments underneath the plasma membrane, provides shape for the cell

70
Q

microvilli

A

small plasma membrane coated projections from the cell that increase surface area

71
Q

cytoplasmic streaming

A

circular flow of cytoplasm in plants that is driven by the dynamic nature of actin filaments along with actin/myosin interactions

72
Q

intermediate filaments

A

-in between microtubules and microfilaments in terms of size (8 to 12 nm)
-nuclear lamina is made of intermediate filaments
-more stable networks than microtubules and microfilaments

73
Q

glycoproteins

A

proteins with one or more covalently attached carbohydrates (most abundant is collagen)

74
Q

proteoglycans

A

have small protein cores with many carbohydrates attached (mucin is a proteoglycan)

75
Q

cell wall

A

-a protective layer external to the plasma membrane in the cells of plants, prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists
-made of polysaccharides

76
Q

plasmodesmata

A

-membrane-lined channels filled with cytoplasm that connect adjacent plant cells
-allows communication and coordination between cells that are separated by cell walls
-can move water, ions, and small molecules between cells

77
Q

tight junctions

A

bind the adjacent cells together through the interaction of trans-membrane proteins (prevent fluid from moving between cells)

78
Q

desmosomes

A

anchor cells together (intermediate filaments bind to desmosomes, linking the cytoskeleton of adjacent cells together)

79
Q

gap junctions

A

cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells that allow water, ions, and small molecules to move between cells

80
Q

the endomembrane system consists of:

A

-plasma membrane
-nuclear envelope
-endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
-vesicles
-Gogli apparatus
-lysosomes
-vacuoles

81
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

describes structure of plasma membrane:
-the fluid part is the lipid bilayer, made of phospholipids
-mosaic refers to the various proteins that float in the lipid bilayer

82
Q

amphipathic

A

containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

83
Q

how does cholesterol affect fluidity?

A

cholesterol buffers fluidity by making plasma membrane more viscous at high temperatures and less viscous at low temperatures

84
Q

integral proteins

A

are proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer; usually span the whole width of the lipid bilayer

85
Q

peripheral proteins

A

are loosely bound to the surface of the plasma membrane and do not penetrate the lipid bilayer

86
Q

6 membrane protein functions

A
  1. transport
  2. enzymatic activity
  3. signal transduction
  4. cell-cell recognition
  5. intercellular joining
  6. attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)
87
Q

signal transduction

A

the linkage of a mechanical, chemical, or electromagnetic stimulus to a specific cellular response

88
Q

cell-cell recognition

A

proteins on the cell surface are important for joining cells of the same type together, and to separate cells of a different type

89
Q

lipid bilayer sidedness

A

each side of the lipid bilayer has a unique lipid, protein, and carbohydrate composition

90
Q

flipping lipids

A

need enzymes to catalyze the movement of lipids from one side of the lipid bilayer to the other

91
Q

scramblase

A

catalyzes flipping of phospholipid molecules

92
Q

flippase

A

catalyzes flipping of specific phospholipids to cytoplasmic monolayer

93
Q

membrane function

A

plasma membranes regulate the exchange of material into and out of cells

94
Q

selective permeability

A

some substances can cross the plasma membrane more easily than others

95
Q

transport proteins

A

transmembrane proteins that help a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane

96
Q

channel proteins

A

provide a hydrophilic channel through the plasma membrane that allow certain molecules to pass through

97
Q

carrier proteins

A

bind to specific molecules and then change shape allowing the specified molecules to shuttle across the plasma membrane

98
Q

aquaporins

A

are channel proteins that allow 3 billion water molecules to pass through the molecules to pass through the plasma membrane per second

99
Q

substances that cross the plasma membrane easily

A

-non-polar molecules (CO2, O2)
-lipids (fats, steroids)

100
Q

substances that do not cross the plasma membrane easily

A

polar molecules
-water
-glucose and other sugars
-ions (K+, Na+, Ca2+)

101
Q

passive transport

A

when molecules are able to diffuse across the membrane without an energy input (ex: movement of water through aquaporin)

102
Q

concentration gradient

A

a region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases

103
Q

diffusion

A

the movement of molecules of any substance so that they spread out evenly into the available space

104
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

the passage of molecules or ions down their electrochemical gradient across a biological membrane with the assistance of specific transmembrane transport proteins, requiring no energy expenditure

105
Q

osmosis

A

the diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane

106
Q

tonicity

A

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

107
Q

hypertonic solutions

A

are solutions with a higher concentration of a non-penetrating substance (ex: glucose) on the outside of a cell

108
Q

hypotonic solutions

A

are solutions with a lower concentration of a non-penetrating substance of the outside of a cell (ex: pure water)

109
Q

isotonic solutions

A

are solutions with an equal concentration of a non-penetrating substance on each side of the cell

110
Q

osmoregulation

A

the regulation of solute concentrations and water balance by a cell or organism

111
Q

turgid

A

hypotonic; normal state for plants

112
Q

flaccid

A

isotonic

113
Q

plasmolysis

A

the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution

114
Q

channel proteins

A

proteins that allow substances to pass through cell membranes (ex: aquaporins)

115
Q

ion channels

A

proteins that transport ions across biological membranes; some ion channels are gated and only open in response to a stimulus, often electrical
(important for transmitting signals in the nervous system)

116
Q

carrier proteins

A

move substances down a concentration gradient with no energy expenditure

117
Q

active transport

A

The movement of a substance across a cell
membrane against its concentration or
electrochemical gradient, mediated by specific
transport proteins and requiring an
expenditure of energy (ex: sodium and potassium pumps)

118
Q

phosphorylation

A

the process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule, most commonly a protein, which acts as a key regulatory mechanism in cells by changing the protein’s function and activity, often in response to external signals

119
Q

membrane potential

A

the difference in electrical charge (voltage) across a cell’s plasma membrane due to the differential distribution of ions

120
Q

voltage

A

electrical potential energy

121
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

the diffusion gradient of an ion, which is affected by both the concentration difference of an ion across a membrane (a chemical force) and the ion’s tendency to move relative to the membrane potential (an electrical force)

122
Q

electrogenic pumps

A

a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane (ex: animal cells use Na+ and K+ pumps; bacteria, plants, and fungi use proton pumps)

123
Q

cotransport

A

some transport proteins couple the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the movement of another substance against its concentration gradient (ex: sucrose- H+ transporter in plants)

124
Q

bulk transport

A

the process by which cells move large quantities of materials, like large molecules or particles, across their cell membrane using membrane-bound vesicles, requiring energy (ATP)
-exocytosis and endocytosis

125
Q

exocytosis

A

the cellular secretion of biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles containing them with the plasma membrane
-mediated by transport vesicles moving from the Golgi along microtubules

126
Q

endocytosis

A

the cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate matter via formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane

127
Q

pinocytosis

A

when a cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes (cellular “drinking”)

128
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

the movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in

129
Q

metabolism

A

the totality of an organism’s chemical reactions; manages the material and energy resources of the cell

130
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule or breaks down a complex molecule

131
Q

catabolic pathways

A

breakdown complex molecules into simpler molecules and release energy (ex: cellular respiration)

132
Q

anabolic pathways

A

consume energy to build complicated molecules (ex: photosynthesis, protein synthesis)

133
Q

energy

A

the capacity to cause change

134
Q

kinetic energy

A

the energy associated with the relative motion of objects

135
Q

heat (thermal energy)

A

the total amount of kinetic energy due to the random motion of atoms or molecules in a body of matter

136
Q

potential energy

A

the energy that matter possesses as a result of its location or spatial arrangement (structure)

137
Q

chemical energy

A

refers to the potential energy available for release in a chemical equation

138
Q

thermodynamics

A

the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter

139
Q

system

A

refers to the matter being studied (ex: cell)

140
Q

surroundings

A

everything outside the system, aka the rest of the universe

141
Q

isolated system

A

matter that is unable to exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings

142
Q

open system

A

matter that can transfer matter and energy with its surroundings (cell=open system)

143
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed; principle of conservation of energy

144
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe

145
Q

entropy

A

the measure of disorder or randomness

146
Q

spontaneous process

A

a process that occurs without an input of energy

147
Q

free energy

A

the portion of a system’s energy that can perfom work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout a system

148
Q

free energy change equation

A

delta G = delta H - (T)*(delta S)

149
Q

delta G

A

change in free energy

150
Q

delta H

A

change in a system’s total energy

151
Q

enthalpy

A

refers to the total heat content of a system

152
Q

T

A

absolute temperature in Kelvin (K=C+273)

153
Q

delta S

A

change in a system’s entropy

154
Q

when do spontaneous reactions occur?

A

only if delta G is negative
-the total energy of the system (delta H) must decrease
-or the temperature must increase
-or the total entropy of the system (delta S) must increase

BIOL101 (2 decks)

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