Ch. 5: CULTURE, DEMOGRAPHICS, AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY Flashcards
symbolic culture
Consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture
Material culture
Involves physical objects or artifacts
includes clothing, hairstyles, food, and home design
importance placed on material objects can often reflect the culture’s values ex. american dream involves a car: symbol of mobility, independence
non-material culture
specific to social thoughts and ideas such as values
popular culture
phrase used to describe features of culture that appeal to the masses often those communicated through mass media such as radio and television
high culture
describe those features often limited to the consumption of the elite, like the ballet or opera
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common to all people
pertain to basic human experiences, including birth, death, and illness
values
defined as a culture’s standard for evaluating what is good or bad
often define how people in a society should behave but they may not actually reflect how people do behave
beliefs
the convictions or principles that people hold
norms
the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society
sociobiology
a study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behaviour
primarily applies darwins principle of natural selection to social behaviour suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviours
Discuss Cultural diffusion
The transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another
contributes to cultural similarities between different societies
can be direct or indirect or sometimes forced
rate has increased lately as result of cross cultural communication (media, transportation)
Cultural competence
effective interactions between people from different cultures
cultural transmission
the process through which this information is spread across generations or the mechanisms of learning
social change
societies experience a change in state
can be subtle like development of new linguistic phrases, or radical like revolutions
Revolutions
transformative social changes
cultural lag
the “lag” of creation of new social rules when there are transformative social changes
Transition shock
When individuals experience changes that necessitate a period of adjustment
culture shock
When transition shock is the result of an individual being subjected to alternative cultures and foreign environments such as through leisure travel or permanent relocation
deeper emotions than homesickness
Challenges an individuals assumptions about their social surroundings
reverse culture shock
The same experiences of culture shock but upon an individuals return to their initial environment
Sociocultural evolution
A set of theories describing the processes through which societies and cultures have progressed over time
less concerned with evolution of human bodies but instead questions how human minds have evolved for us to succeed as beings with natural social tendencies
human population
the collection of people in a defined geographical area and refers to the number of people in the area
population studies
interested in demographic shifts
Why is the world as a whole experiencing a period of population growth predicted to continue for many decades?
Much of the growth attributed to advances in agricultural production and innovations in medicine contributing to changes in birth and death rates
overpopulation
When there are more people than can be sustained
What is the concern in societies experiencing population declines?
maintaining economic success
Carrying capacity
the total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources and without significant negative efffects in a given area
Population equilibrium
the point at which carrying capacity is met
population projections
estimates of future populations made from mathematical extrapolations of previous data
are based on birth rates, death rates, and migrations. doesnt consider unpredicted effects on population like catastrophes
what was the global population in 2011. What is it projected to be in 2050?
was 7 billion in 2011
predicted to be 9-11 billion
population pyramids
graphical illustrations in which population distributions (age, sex) are sometimes represented
creates age and sex specific groups (cohorts) using either total population or percentages
x axis represents population. y-axis separates men and women. tradition puts men on the left and women on the right.
creates a clear distinct shape that describes the social structure
can help predict population trends and determine the social needs for dependents (children, people of retirement age)
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
the annual number of births per 1,000 people in a population
CBR <10 = low
CBR >20 = high
age specific birth rates
The annual number of births per 1,000 people in an age group
Age specific death rates
The annual number of deaths per 1,000 people in an age group
fertility
The ability of a woman to reproduce
The general fertility rate
The annual number of births per 1,000 woman in a population
total fertility rate
predicts the total number of births per single woman in a population
operates on the assumption that the woman experiences the current recorded age specific fertility rates and reaches the end of her reproductive life
more complicated measure
What are “childbearing years” ?
between ages 15-45
The replacement fertility rate
The fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced
Sub replacement fertility
Indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, thus the population size will not be sustained
The population-lag effect
refers to the fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations as the result of population momentum
Population momentum
in this, the children produced during periods of higher fertility rates reproduce –> there are more women of reproductive age and thus more births overall, regardless of the number of births per woman
Why would we use fertility rates over crude birth rates?
Crude birth rates dont consider age or sex differences
Fertility rates offer a clearer idea of demographic trends
mortality
refers to the death rate in a population which also includes both general and specific measures
morbidity
refers to the nature and extent of disease in a population
The prevalence rate
measures the number of individuals experiencing a disease
Incidence rate
measures the number of new cases of a disease
case fatality rate
measures deaths as the result of a set diagnosis or procedure, sometimes specific to beginning or late stages
What is the current leading cause of death worldwide?
Ischemic heart disease
but varies if you look at location or different ages
What kind of relationship exists between a nations crude death rate and its gross domestic product (GDP)
An inverse correlation
Infant mortality rate?
the annual number of deaths per 1,000 infants under one year of age
rate is lowest in european countries
highest in subsaharan regions of africa
life expectancy
the number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates
global life expectancies can range from 36 to 79 years
what are factors contributing to decreased crude brith rates?
- access to contraception
- costs associated with raising a child
- social changes
What are the factors contributing to decreased crude death rates?
- improvements in agriculture
- medicine
- sanitation
migration
the geographical movement of individuals, families, or other small or large groups of people
distinct from other non permanent movement
nomadism
a traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources as a method of sustenance (hunting and gathering)
not considered migration because there is no intention to settle
External migration
also referred to as cross -border or international migration, involves migration to another nation
motivation for external migration is often more economic in nature as individuals pursue better opportunities such as education
voluntary migration
the result of internal factors (a personal decision)
Involuntary migration
or forced migration
the result of external factors that pose a threat to the individual in their initial environments and are often a form of social control such as ethnic cleansing
settlers
Those who migrate to unsettled areas
refugees
Those who migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement
Colonization
involves migration to settled areas in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state
Immigration
involves entering a new area and these people are called immigrants (can be either legal or illegal residents)
Emigration
involves leaving an old area and these people are called emigrants
reverse migration
or return migration
the return of individuals to their former homes
What did everett Lee do
hes a popular theorist
differentiated between the push and pull factors in migration
Push factors
those things that are unattractive about an area, and “push” people to leave
What are examples of push factors
- are often economic, political, or religious in form
- additional forms of prejudice and discrimination
- insufficient access to social resources
- destructive violence or natural disasters
- genocide
genocide
mass execution with the intention of eliminating a specific social group
Pull factors
things that are attractive about an area and pull people there
examples of pull factors
- positive opportunities for economic, political, or religious freedom and success
Internal migration
the movement between rural and urban areas
social geography
The spatial distribution of individuals and social groups is an interest of social geography
urbanization
refers to the growth of urban areas (as people move from rural to urban areas) as the result of global change
Is tied to industrialization
Industrialization
The process through which societies transform from agrarian to industrial in nature
industrialized countries have more people living in urban areas than non-indusrialized countries do
What is the global urbanization rate roughly?
50%
approx how much of the US population lives in urban areas ?
80%
includes cities and suburbs
What are reasons people move to urban areas?
- predominantly for the opportunities for economic advancement that cities provide
- people can access more social services in cities
Rural flight
the migration from rural areas to urban areas from the other perspective
suburbanization
refers to population growth on the fringes of urban areas - as people move from urban areas to suburban areas
suburbs
residential satellite communities located in the peripheral regions of major urban centres that are often connected to the cities in some fashion
white flight
a historical example of suburbanizationt hat involved the migration of whites from cities to more racially homogenous suburbs
urban sprawl
the migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas
what are negative effects of urban sprawl?
-urban blight
- desolate properties such as condemned houses
- dangerous conditions can contribute to increase in crime levels in blighted areas
- those remaining in blighted areas are often poor and have less access to social amenities and opportunities
Urban blight
occurs when less functioning areas of large cities degrade as a result of urban decline
- a negative result of urban sprawl
gentrification
refers to the renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal
- is often specific to the introduction of wealthier residents to the cities who then help to restore the existing infrastructure which alters the region’s demographics and economics
- a form of urban renewal or the redevelopment of urban areas
- causes social change with both positive and engative effects
positive effects of gentrification
increases the tax base
negative effects of gentrification
can lead to the displacement of the original local people
urban renewal
the redevelopment of urban areas
- can be a mechanism for reform or a mechanism for control
Demographic transition (DT)
A theory of population change
- the transition from overall higher to lower birth and death rates as a result of a country’s development from a pre-industrial to industrial framework due to both economic and social changes
- thus, both fertility and mortality rates decrease in the transition from agricultural to manufacturing society
- long term effects: stable population
- includes specific stages of transition. developed countries are further along in this transition than developing countries.
limits of the demographic transition model?
it does not consider additional social factors that affect birth rates like religious influences
Thomas Robert Malthus argued?
argued that population is the result of available resources for sustenance such as productive farmland
- humans are inclined to reproduce and thus population growth is often exponential esp during times of excess
- he described two forms of checks on population growth: positive checks and preventative checks
Malthusianism
- states that the possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase
What are examples of positive checks? according to malthus
things that raise the death rate like disease, disasters, hunger and wars
What are examples of preventative checks?
Things that lower the birth rate like abstinence, birth control, late marriage, and same sex relationships
A Malthusian Catastrophe
occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population –> results in population reduction through actual or predicted famine
Neo-Malthusianism
Is a movement based on these principles that advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain
Demography
The study of human population dynamics including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration
Where is demographic data derived from?
largely from censuses
The Great Migration
The migration of African Americans from the rural south to the urban north after abolition of slavery
The New Great Migration
An example of a domestic reverse migration
During this period, there was an increase in black migration to the now urban south as racial relations improved
Minorities
The demographic groups that receive differential treatment through processes of prejudice and discrimination due to their shared characteristics
Lower statuses than other groups–> considered inferior
groups are termed minorities not for their size but their disparate social experiences
Dominant groups
Those with the social power to assign these labels
Age cohorts
an example of statistical cohorts in which a group of subjects share the characteristic of age
generations
groups of people born in the same period
population aging
occurs when there is a disproportionate amount of older people in a population
Raises concerns such as health care demands and provider shortages
Ageism
Prejudice or discrimination against a person based on age, often against older people
Social aging
reflects the biological changes in a multidimensional process in which individuals experience complex emotional and social changes
What are the social implications of an aging population
Economic consequences include:
- increased requirements for pension liabilities
- increased requirements for retirement packages
- increased requirements for workers compensation
Increase in children leads to
- greater demands for social resources such as education
- younger people more likely to contribute to social changes such as creation of new technologies or the push for political changes
Sex
a biological characteristic that is assigned at birth and sometimes permanent
Based on chromosomes, external genitalia, gonads, and hormones
male (XY)
Female (XX)
or intersex
Gender
Is a social characteristic that is based on behavioural role expectations
categories are : masculine and feminine
developed societies often see gender in dichotomous terms where masculine and feminine are opposites
in some societies, there are third genders, such as two spirits. neither male nor female individuals are held in high regard in some traditional native american tribes
Is gender thought to be influenced by nature or nurture?
Both:
- biological measures can have behavioural effects (ex hormones)
-our social surroundings have a profound effect on the development of our gender identities
Gender identification
occurs through multiple agents of socialization and gender roles
Gender conditioning
The socialization of gender roles
Gender roles
Describe the social and behavioural expectations for men and women
The expectations are internalized and become connected to our self identities and thus influence our behaviours
Gender expression
the external manifestation of these roles
Gender schema theory
the study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society
Sexism
prejudice or discrimination against a person based on gender or sex, often against women
Transgender
gender identities inconsistent with biological sex divisions
Race
A description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics
Shared characteristics are often inherited biological traits or genetic differences and manifest in physical appearance
Ethnicity
Is cultural rather than biological
Ethnicities are distinct from nationalities
Ethnogenesis
A social process that results in the creation of separate ethnicities
historical ex: the development of small sub-ethnic groups into independent ethnic groups
Tribes
The development of small subethnic groups
Racism
Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another
Ethnocentrism
describes biases that result when people look at issues from the perspective of a particular cultural background
It is often whites who are said to be ethnocentric in sociological studies
Racial formation perspective
Michael Omi and Howard Winat
created with the purpose of deconstructing race in its modern form
Race is seen as a complex and fluid social construct, enforced through both micro and macro level social processes
race presented as an exclusive social construct
Without these processes the differences in biological features are meaningless
Racialization/ Ethnicization
The social process in which the dominant group ascribes racial or ethnic identities, perceived or real, to groups that do not otherwise relate to the labels
This process is used as a form of social control, often as a part of imperialism or nationalism
Imperialism
a policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means
nationalism
identification with one’s own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.
What are the three main sexual orientations
heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual
The Kinsey Scale (The Heterosexual- Homosexual Rating scale)
Assigns a number from 0 (exclusively heterosexual) to 6 (exclusively homosexual) that places each individual along this continuum
Heterosexism
Prejudice or discrimination against a person based on their sexual orientation toward the same sex (homophobia)
Heteronormative beliefs
Often enforce strict gender roles and involve prejudice and discrimination against non-heterosexual individuals
Which continents host the first and second largest number of immigrants?
- Europe
- North America
The American Dream
An ideological construct that offers individuals the opportunities for happiness and success with the proper amount of determination
This central promise has contributed to the rise in migration to the US in the search for a better life with more freedoms
What are the four main periods of immigration in the US?
1) The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries:
- english colonists migrated to the US (colonial period). Indentured servants also migrated through this, accounting for more than half of all immigrants from europe during the period
2) The mid- nineteenth century:
- Most migrants came from northern europe
3) Early Twentieth century:
- During this period most migrants came from southern and eastern europe (ex. jewish refugees moved to US in flight from NAzi regime.) . Peak of european migration was 1907 after which the social context of the US made conditions less suitable for immigration (for ex. The great depression)
4) Late twentieth century (Post 1965 - present) :
- Majority of migrants from Asia and Latin America. Rates during this period have been unprecedented
Immigration controls
formal policies that define and regulate who has the right to settle in an area
What are the top three reasons for legal immigration?
- Family reunification
- Employment skills
- Humanitarian reasons
Globalization
The process of increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world
Telecommunications
Use modern technologies to ease the challenges of communication across distances
contribute to the integration of economical, political, and social processes worldwide
Economic interdependence
Thought of as the division of labor on a global scale; countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production
(ex. US is dependent on other countries for oil)
Outsourcing
involves the contracting of third parties for specific operations
Can be domestic or foreign, but the financial savings associated with foreign outsourcing have made it a focus of much opposition
Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Those organizations without an official government affiliation with the intention of contributing to the lessening of global issues
ex. doctors without borders
civil unrest
or civil disorder
involve forms of collective behaviour in which there is public expression of the group’s concern, often in response to major social problems like with political demonstrations and protests
can have serious consequences for societies: destruction of public properties and interruption of important services
Terrorism
involves the use of violence with the intention to create fear in the target communities
reasons: ideological, nationalistic, political, religious, other
defining characteristic: indiscriminate violence, violence directed toward non-combatants
pros and cons of organized world governments
PROS
- greater democratic representation of less developed countries
CONS
- contributes to the disintegration of democratic values
Economic issues inherent in globalization
- the concentration of economic power in developed countries
- contribute to oppressive politics
- contributor to social control
Relative Deprivation
refers to the conscious experience individuals or groups that do not have the resources needed for the social experiences and services that are seen as appropriate to their social position
there is a feeling of being entitled to more than what one has in their current situation. Perceived deprivation- can be economic, political or social
social stratification
refers to the way that people are categorized in society. Stratification not only serves to define differences but also serves to reinforce and perpetuate them
people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income
people with the most resources comprise the top tiers of the stratification while people with the least resources comprise the bottom tiers
The caste system
describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category they are born into
The class system
compare with the caste system. The classes are open, so people can strive to reach a higher class or fall to a lower one
Considers both social variables and individual initiative
groups together people of similar wealth, income, education, etc. Class position affords people only a certain amount of resources
Meritocracy
Another stratification system that uses merit (personal effort) to establish social standing
An idealized system, no society solely stratifies based on effort
most sociologists define stratification in terms of socioeconomic status
Socioeconomic status (SES)
can be defined in terms of …
power- the ability to get other people to do something
property- possessions and income, and
- prestige- reputation
Social mobility
refers to the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
Upward mobility
refers to an increase in social class
Downward mobility
refers to a decrease in social class
Intergenerational mobility
Occurs when there is an increase or decrease in social class between parents and children within a family
Intragenerational mobility
Describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation
Social reproduction
refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one general to the next
occurs by two mechanisms: cultural capital and social capital
cultural capital
refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
ex. Education: gives someone the potential to be upwardly mobile
Social capital
Refers to the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
powerful way to tap into vast networks of resources but can also reinforce inequalities already present in society
Power
The ability to get other people to do something
Prestige
Reputation in society
How are power and prestige related?
both rely on privilege
privilege
a set of advantages available exclusively to a person or group
Intersectionality
The analytical approach that seeks to highlight the ways different identities intersect within individuals and social groups to produce unique social positions
Identities, whether privileged or disadvantaged, do not combine additively and should not be considered in isolation
ex. A woman who is black and a lesbian cannot be understood by considering her blackness and then her non-heterosexuality, but rather the unique position of black lesbian must be considered in its own right
Socioeconomic gradient in health
applies within countries and between countries. A global effect,
within countries: higher SES individuals tend to have better outcomes
Between countries: Countries with higher gross domestic product tend to have better outcomes
extends into the conditions in which people live. SES affects where one can live, lower paid work is often Dirty, Dangerous, and Difficult (3 Ds)
- predisposes to injury, illness, affects ability to pay for healthcare
Global stratification
compares the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries
Global inequity examples
- certain countries hold a majority of the resources
- access to resources among countries seriously impacts other social factors such as mortality
- The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population
- the poorest people in the wealthiest countries are far better off than the poorest people in the poorest countries
Relative poverty
The inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
Absolute poverty
The inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, reliable access to healthcare
Marginal poverty
due to a lack of stable employment
Structural poverty
Due to underlying and pervasive effects of the society’s institutions
Social epidemiology
the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population
Health care disparities
include the population specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and quality of health care across different social groups
gender bias
When women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness
The Louisiana Basin in many ways represents a subculture of american society where french language and culture has had a significant impact on norms and rituals. The famous mardigras festival is an example of an imported cultural ritual which has, over the years, come to dominate much of what the world associates with the New Orleans area and its culture, at the expense of many other traditions and norms. Which term most closely describes this scenario?
a) Cultural Lag
b) Cultural Transmission
c) Cultural Diffusion
d) Culture Shock
C
Life expectancy in most developed countries is currently expanding while fertility rates are decreasing. In Japan, for example, recent data showed life expectancy in the mid 80s and average fertility at approx 1.5 births per female. Both these trends are expected to stabilize in the coming years. We would expect japan to experience….
A) Population growth due to reduced mortality rates
B) Population decline due to sub-replacement level birth rates
C) Population growth due to replacement-level birth rates
D) Population decline due to mortality rate stabilization
B
Each of the following is consistent with the socioeconomic gradient in health EXCEPT:
a) A state university makes a push to accept more students from its immediate vicinity and this leads to improved health measures in the neighbourhood
b) Teachers are found to have higher life expectancy than a collection of blue collar workers, despite similar median incomes and income distributions
c) An African American male living in a wealthy community is more likely to have better health outcomes despite a low income
d) A wealthy business owner in a poor neighbourhood is shielded against detrimental effects despite low health care outcomes in her community
D
One employee quits a job to take a similar position at another firm. Her subordinate is promoted to replace her in the position. Which of the following has occurred?
a)An employee exercising vertical mobility to replace another employee who has exercised vertical mobility
b) An employee exercising horizontal mobility to replace another employee who has exercised horizontal mobility
c) An employee exercising vertical mobility to replace another employee who has exercised horizontal mobility
d) An employee exercising horizontal mobility to replace another employee who has exercised vertical mobility
C
Recent demographic information shows that for the first time in many generations, american children are not expected to earn more real (inflation adjusted) income than their parents, and there seems to be a decrease in meritocracy. This is evidence that:
a) intergenerational mobility is stagnant, and stratification may be on the rise
b) Generational stagnation is leading to social reproduction
c) social reproduction is leading to stagnant intergenerational mobility
d) intergenerational mobility is stagnant and stratification is relatively stable
A
