Ch. 4: SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Flashcards
define society
a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area
Sociology
The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are shaped by the society they live in
What are the four major sociological theories that explain society?
What are the other 2 ?
- Functionalism (macro)
- Conflict theory (macro)
- Symbolic interactionism (micro)
- Social constructionism (macro/micro)
- Feminist theory
- Rational choice/ social exchange theories
Out of the four major sociological theories, which ones are…
Macro?
Micro?
Both?
Macro: Functionalism and conflict theory
Micro: Symbolic interactionism
Both Social constructionism
Define functionalism
A theory that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose
Functionalism can trace its genesis to who??
The philosopher Herbert Spencer
What did Herbert Spencer say about functionalism?
- compared society to a functioning and regulating human body
- Various structures and institutions are to a society as the various organs and systems are to a human body
- societies can evolve just like organisms
What are some of the main points of functionalism?
- ## Focus on functions of different social structures and their contribution to society at large
Who is considered the founder of sociology? Why?
Emile Durkheim
Established sociology as an academic field of study separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy
Groundbreaking scientific work
What did Emile Durkheim say about functionalism?
- society’s capacity to maintain social order and stability is essential to functional success
- modern societies more complex than primitive societies
- interdependent parts work together to keep society ordered, balanced, stable specifically when facing imbalance or crisis to return to state of dynamic equilibrium
- healthy societies maintain dynamic equilibrium, unhealthy ones cannot
- society should always be viewed holistically: a collection of social facts (morals, values, religions, customs, rules, etc)
- “collective conscience” and social “solidarity”
Manifest functions in functionalism
The official, intended and obvious consequences of a social structure
eg. manifest functions of a police department include enforcing laws against violent crime and property crime
Latent functions in functionalism
The unintended or less recognizable consequences of a social structure
eg. Latent functions of a police department include raising government revenue by issuing traffic tickets or promoting social inequality through selective law enforcement
Social dysfunction
A process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society
eg. a dysfunctional police department could routinely commit police brutality
When was functionalism the prevailing theory in sociology?
1950s
What is a macro level theory?
One that focuses primarily on large scale social structures and their effects on individuals
What was a major criticism of fundamentalism ?
sociologists began to argue that functionalism’s focus on the structures of healthy society working together to maintain societal order, balance, and stability could not accurately account for the many rapid sociological advances taking place in the 1960s and 1970s
Define conflict theory
A theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources
2 major points of conflict theory
- All past and current societies have had unequally distributed resources, therefore individual members of these societies must compete for social, political, and material resources
- social structures and institutions will reflect this competition in their degree of inherent inequality: Those with the most resources, power, and influence use their advantages to amass more resources power and influence by suppressing the advancement of others
Which sociological theory were Karl Marx and Max weber closely associated with?
Conflict theory
What did Karl Marx say about conflict theory?
- every society is divided into two major classes depending on ownership of the means of production
- In capitalism, the ruling class owns the means of production while the working class provides labour. Working class is oppressed and exploited by the ruling class that pays working class a fraction of the value of their labour
- Differences between the two classes result in inherent conflict of interests between the two groups
- Those who already have want to maintain their position at the top. Have nots want to overthrow the haves to create an egalitarian society
-
Capitalism
The economic system that encourages competition and private ownership
Goods and services are produced for a profit
Driving force is the pursuit of personal profit
Hegemony
A coerced acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the capitalist class
Class consciousness (marx)
Marx defines as: exploited workers’ awareness of the reasons for their oppression
Marx said this would inevitably lead to workers revolting against the less numerous capitalists, overthrow their oppressors, and replace capitalism with an extreme form of socialism (marx called communism)
Socialism
An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned
What criticisms did Max Weber have of Marx’s tenets of conflict theory? What did he agree with?
Agree: inequalities in a capitalist system will lead to conflict
Disagreed:
- collapse of capitalism is not inevitable
- Marx’s focus on economic inequality is too narrow and extreme
- Marx does not pay enough attention to the power of values and beliefs to influence, transform, stabilize societies
- several factors moderate peoples’ reaction to inequality: agreement with authority figures, high rates of social mobility, low rates of class difference
Protestant/ Puritan work ethic
Theorized by Max Weber about conflict theory
a widely held religious belief that lauded the morality of hard work for the sake of godliness
critical factor in the success of the capitalist system in replacing the feudist system that preceded it in western europe
Rationalization of society
Defined by max weber as our increasing concern with efficiency (achieving max result with min effort)
Which three men are generally considered the founders of sociology?
Karl Marx
Emil Durkheim
Max Weber
What are the major criticisms of Conflict Theory
- focuses too much on competition
- does not recognize the role of stability within society
- and that Conflict theorists…
1. focus too nearsightedly on economic factors
2. view society only from the perspective of those who lack power
3. ignore the cooperative ways in which people and groups can reach pragmatic agreements for the good of society as a whole
Symbolic interactionism
A micro level theory in sociology which examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols
The works of which sociologist are considered most important in the initial development of the paradigm?
George Herbert Mead
Main points of symbolic interactionism
- individuals can make sense of the world around them by ascribing meaning to the symbols and language of their shared culture
- Derived Meanings depend on both individual interpretations and social context
- Society is constructed through human interpretation. People behaved based on what they believe to be true. People must continually interpret their own behaviours as well as those of others around them and these interpretations form a social bond
- the principal of meaning is the central aspect of human behaviour
What 3 reasons are given for the principal of meaning to be the central aspect of human behaviour in symbolic interactionism?
1) Humans ascribe meaning to things and act toward those things based on their ascribed meaning
2) Language allows humans to generate meaning through social interaction with each other and society
3) Humans modify meanings through an interpretive thought process that observes and considers the reactions of others as well as the social context of these interactions
Mean and other interactionists have determined that the self is developed through three important activities….
- Language:
- most prominent, what we say, hear, body language, interpretation of meaning - Games:
- stricter rules, greater stakes: ex. board games - Play:
- spontaneity, freedom, minimal social rules, limited stakes: going out for coffee)
What is Mead’s “i” and “me”? explain the distinction
“I”: represents individualistic self
- seeks to establish its own unique identity through social interactions in the face of social pressures and expectations
- the active agent part of the self
- acts on other people and things, has its own autonomy and will
“me”: represents the social self
- when others are acting and interpreting our behaviour and we are the object of their actions and interpretations
Both the I and Me are in constant dialogue. “Thinking” is the internal dialogue between the individualistic and social self
What is the Thomas Theorem?
The theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation
What is the Dramaturgical approach?
Developed by Erving Goffman
A paradigm that views people as theatrical performers and everyday life is a stage.
- actors project an on screen image just as people in society choose what kind of image they will communicate to those they interact with
Criticisms of symbolic interactionism
The theory neglects the macro level of social interpretation and may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely on individual interactions
Social constructionism
A sociology theory that argues that reality is constructed, not inherent
What aspects to social constructionism and symbolic interactionism share? How do they differ?
Same:
- society is subject to cultural “meaning making” and collective definition building
- primary way societies evolve is through changes in collective meaning making
- challenge the scientific viewpoint that there is one objective reality shared by all humans
Differ:
- interactionists focus almost exclusively on one-on-one and small group interactions while
- social constructionists examine the constructs of society from both macro and micro sociological perspectives
Typification
The process of relying on individual general knowledge as a way of constructing ideas about people and the social world
Feminist Theory
Social theory concerned with the social experiences of both men and women and the differences between these experiences
ex. Manhood vs woman hood
Masculine vs feminine
Is feminist theory macro or micro?
Focuses both on macro level questions (the social structures that contribute to gender differences) and micro level questions (the effects of gender differences on individual interactions
define feminism
a collection of social movements with the purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights, roles, statuses, etc.
Intersectionality
Posits that various human aspects subject to societal oppression (class, gender, race, gender, etc) do not exist isolated and separated from each other but instead have complex, influential, and interwoven relationships
Which theories can be included under the heading Rational choice theory?
Social exchange theory
Game theory
Rational actor theory
What is a rational choice paradigm?
Brings a strong economic approach to the analysis of why, when, and how people interact
In all rational choice theories, individuals seek to maximize benefits they gain and minimize the disadvantages they sustain in all of their social interactions
Game theory
A theory used to predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behaviour of a population
Social exchange theory
studies the social behaviour between two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine the risks and benefits
Rational actor theory
refers to a set of guidelines that help understand economic and social behaviour
basic premise that decisions made by individual actors will collectively produce aggregate social behaviour
What is the fundamental premise that all rational choice paradigms share?
That human behaviours are utilitarian
Utilitarianism is based on which two assumptions
- that individual humans are rational in their actions
- that in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self interest
Is rational choice theory and its related theories a micro or macro sociological theory?
Both
Micro: Because utilitarianism focuses on individual social choices that individuals make
Macro: Because they can also look at the tendencies and behaviours of large groups of people
Criticisms of rational choice theory
Assumes the inherent rationality of human actions
Minimizes the role fo culture and subjective meaning in individual and group behaviour
Social Institutions
Complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behaviour of people
What are the 5 functions that families have tended to serve over history?
- Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behaviour
- Protection
- Socialization- passing down norms and values of society
- Affection and companionship
- Social status- Social position is often based on family background and reputation
Nuclear family
Consists of direct blood relations
Extended family
Grandparents, aunts, uncles and others are included
Monogamy
Marriage in which two individuals are only married to each other
Polygamy
An individual has multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
Polygyny
A man marrying more than one woman
Polyandry
A woman married to more than one man
Endogamy
In choosing a mate, refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group
Exogamy
In choosing a mate, refers to requirements to marry outside a particular group
eg. In almost all cultures it is the norm to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
Kinship
Familial relationships including blood ties, family ties, and common ancestry
How we think about who we are related to
Bilateral descent
If a kin group involves both the maternal and paternal relations
Patrilineal descent
If kin groups have preference for paternal relations
Matrilineal descent
If kin groups have preference for maternal relations
Patriarchy
Men have more authority than woman
Matriarchy
Woman have more authority than men
Egalitarian family
Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions
Cohabitation
Couples living together without getting married
has been a large increase esp in couples in their 20s and 30s
Family violence
one member of the family is directly responsible for the threat through their mistreatment of another person often in an attempt to gain power, leaving the target fearful and powerless
Child abuse
What are the four categories ?
Violence directed toward a child target
- Physical abuse
- Emotional abuse
- Sexual Abuse
- Neglect
Domestic Abuse
dating abuse or spousal abuse
Violence directed toward one partner of an intimate relationship where the abuser is the second partner
Elder Abuse
Violence directed toward an older target
What are the manifest and latent functions of educational institutions ?
Manifest: To systematically pass down knowledge and to give status to those who have been educated
Latent: Socialization, serving as agents of change, maintaining social control
Hidden curriculum
Other, unintentional lessons learned in school
Often conflicts with the manifest curriculum
ex. med students have experience conflict between stated values of their curriculum and the lived reality of hospital when hospital staff actions inadvertently teach them that patients are nuisances
Educational Segregation
The widening disparity between children from high income neighbourhoods and those from low income neighbourhoods
Teacher expectancy theory
- Teachers quickly form expectations of individual students, and once they form these expectations, they tend to act toward the student with these expectations in mind
- If the student accepts the teacher’s expectations as reasonable, the student will begin to perform in accordance with them as well
Educational Stratification
A societal mechanism in which individuals are sorted or categorized creating/ reinforcing/ perpetuating inequalities and unequal opportunities
Ecclesia
With examples
- A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society
- is recognized as national or official religion
- no other religion tolerated
- often integrated into political institutions and people do not choose to participate but are born into these social institutions
Ex. Sweden (Lutheranism) and Iran (Islam)
Church
Examples?
- type of religious organization well integrated into larger society
- tends to occur by birth but many allow people to join
- congregations typically concerned with both sacred and ordinary aspects of life
- well stipulated rules and regulations
ex. USA (Catholic Church)
Sect
Examples?
- religious organization distinct from that of a larger society
- often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions
- over time some may develop into churches
- membership through birth or conversion
Ex. USA (mormon or amish communities)
Sect
Examples?
- religious organization distinct from that of a larger society
- often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions
- over time some may develop into churches
- membership through birth or conversion
Ex. USA (mormon or amish communities)
Cult/ New religious movements
examples
religious organization far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
Ex. Branch Davidians and Heaven’s Gate
Pros and Cons of religion
Pros:
- social cohesion
- social change
- Emotional, spiritual, material support
- provide believers with meaning and purpose
Cons:
- Social dissent and violence
- social control
Liberation theology
The use of the church in a political effort against various social issues such as poverty and injustice
Secularization
The process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies
Fundamentalism
A second response to modernist societies
There is a strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices and a strict adherence to basic religious doctrines resulting from a literalist interpretation of these texts
List the five major world religions in order of most common to least common
- Christianity
- Islam
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Judaism
Characteristics of christianity
- largest single faith in the world
- multiple denominations
- Monotheistic (one god)
- believe in prophets (jesus as the son of god)
- an afterlife
- a judgement day
- ~ 30% of population identify as christian : 80% of americans identify as christian
Characteristics of Islam
- second largest religion in the world
- followers are Muslim
- Monotheistic (allah)
- Believe in prophets (Final one is Mohammad)
- afterlife
- judgement day
- muslim governments often dont separate religion and sate, religion often dictates law
- cultures vary: Veils worn by women is cultural not religious
Characteristics of Islam
- second largest religion in the world
- followers are Muslim
- Monotheistic (allah)
- Believe in prophets (Final one is Mohammad)
- afterlife
- judgement day
- muslim governments often dont separate religion and sate, religion often dictates law
- cultures vary: Veils worn by women is cultural not religious
Characteristics of Hinduism
- Developed in India
- Polytheistic religion (many gods)
- Major deities: Shiva, Vishnu
- reincarnation, rebirth after death
- practiced by ~14% of worlds population
Characteristics of Buddhism
- intention is to address the human existence
- no reliance on supernatural mysteries or myths, including gods
- ## no worshipping gods, aimed at improvement of each individuals human life throughout their own intention and endeavours
Characteristics of Judaism
- Monotheistic (God)
- formed basis for christianity and islam
- believe God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah, and if certain rules are followed (Ten commandments) god would bring paradise to Earth
Religiosity
The extent of influence of religion in a person’s life
ex. Fundamentalists: very devout, extreme, adhere strictly to beliefs. Others may adhere to beliefs without rituals, or rituals without beliefs
Fundamentalists
Very devout to their religion, and extreme form of religiosity
Adhere strictly to religious beliefs
Rational-legal authority
A form of leadership that is organized around rational legal rules
Eg. USA: Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution
3 types of authority
- Rational legal authority
- Traditional Authority
- Charismatic authority
Traditional Authority
A form of leadership where power is due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice
Charismatic Authority
A form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma
Aristarchic governments
2 types
- controlled by small group of people with decision making power
- group is selected based on specific qualifications
- Public not involved in most political decisions
- Include 2 types:
- aristocracies: Ruled by elite citizens, noble births
- meritocracies: Ruled by the meritorious, those with record of meaningful social contributions
Autocratic Governments
2 types examples
- controlled by single person or selective small group
- absolute decision making power
Include
- Dictatorships: ruled by one person
- Fascist governments: ruled by small group of leaders
Monarchic Governments
2 types
- controlled by single person or selective small group
- inherited their leadership role
- ex. King and Queen
- Absolute monarchy
- Constitutional monarchy: leaders are limited through formal constitutions
Authoritarian Governments
1 example
- unelected leaders
- public may have some individual freedoms, but no control over leaders
- Totalitarianism: unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control
Democratic Governments
2 types
- Elected leaders
- public has some degree of political decision making power through either direct decisions or with representation choice (voting)
- Direct democracies: direct public participation
- Representative democracies: indirect public participation through voting/ election of representatives
Oligarchic governments
example
- leaders are elected or unelected
- public may have power to vote for representation
- but people have little influence in decisions and social change
ex. Theocracies: governments ruled by religious elite
Republican governments
- are democratic in nature: consider their countries to be public concerns
- the people have the supreme power in these societies
Federalist governments
- include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups
- division between central (federal) gov and the constituent governments or the state, provincial, and local govs
Parliamentary governments
- both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected
- members of the executive branch (ministers) are accountable to members of the legislature
Presidential governments
include organizing branches as well as a head of state
Anarchy
societies without a public government, “lawlessness”
Economics
concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of resources. both goods and services
What are the main four types of economic structures? Define them
- Command/ Planned economies
- economic decisions based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public (state owned)
- include socialism and communism
- Market
- economic decisions based on the market
- “supply and demand”
- means of production often private
- includes laissez-faire and free market economies
- Mixed
- blend of command and market
- both private and public ownership
- eg. public oversight and funding. private production.
- Traditional
- Consider social customs in economic decisions
- most common in rural areas
- involves bartering and trading
What are thought to be advantages of capitalism
- benefits the consumer by allowing for competition –> theoretically promotes higher quality and lower price of goods and services
-emphasizes personal freedom by limiting government restrictions and regulations
Socialism
An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned
- includes system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs instead of for profit
- driving force in socialist societies is collective goals : everyone is given a job and everyone provided with what they need to survive
- economy is usually centrally controlled and run by government
Communism
specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production
but
absence of currencies, classes, states, based on shared economic, political and social ideologies
Welfare Capitalism
most of the economy is private, but there are extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society
ex. common in western europe where most economies are based on capitalist principle
State capitalism
companies are privately run but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations
ex. In USA, most businesses privately owned but gov runs many operations (schools, postal, museums, military)
Professions
Highly esteemed white collar occupations that require a great deal of education
Division of Labour
When societies become so complex that an individual cannot meet their needs alone (due to capitalism)
Different occupations specialized to serve different needs
Interdependent society because individuals cannot participate in all of the activities required for survival
Pros and Cons of division of labour
Pros:
- increased rate of production
Cons:
- decreased similarities in social experience among individuals, contributes to class differences
What are the two forms of social solidarity in relation to economic approaches? describe them
Mechanical solidarity: allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience
Organic Solidarity: Allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; each movement is distinguishable and separate
Describe the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary care
Primary care: The care providers responsible for ongoing PREVENTATIVE care or disease management or community based care
eg. urgent care centre
Secondary care: includes ACUTE care and specialty care often following a referral from a Primary care provider
eg. ED
Tertiary care: very specialized care, based on consultations with specialist care providers. In hospitals or care facilities designed specifically for patients with limited set of conditions
eg. Cancer hospital, burn centre, palliative care facilities
Medical Model of disease vs
Social model of Disease
MEDICAL: Characterizes all illness as having pathological or physiological basis
- emphasizes physical or medical factors as the cause of all illness
SOCIAL: Emphasizes the effect of one’s social class, employment status, neighbourhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, etc can have on a persons health
- social pressures create conditions for health and illness
Medicalization
The process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment
Social epidemiology
A field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence and distribution of disease across and within populations
Food desert
An area where healthy, fressh food is hard to find because there are no proper grocery stores
Makes people more likely to eat high calorie foods that have low nutritional value
What are the two concepts/ roles that can describe what illness is like for a patient? describe them.
SICK ROLE: Describes society’s response to illness
ILLNESS EXPERIENCE: The patient’s subjective experience of illness
What did Talcott Parsons say about the sick role?
- when ill, a person isnt able to be a contributing member of society
- being ill is a type of deviance
- Others must take up the extra work, consider the persons illness to be legitimate, and not blaming the person for their illness
- in return, the ill person must fulfill the role obligations of an ill person: seek medical care and make a sincere attempt to get well
Relative poverty
An inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
