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bio unit 1 > ch 4- the cell cycle > Flashcards

ch 4- the cell cycle Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are the 3 purposes of cell replication

A

growth and development
maintenance and repair
reproduction

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2
Q

binary fission

A

the method of cell replication used by prokaryotes
allows a single bacterium to replicate exponentially in a short period of time

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3
Q

what is the process of binary fission (overview)

A

DNA replication
Elongation
Septum formation
Cell Division

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4
Q

what occurs in DNA replication

A

the circular chromosomes uncoil and the DNA is replicated. the plasmids also replicate

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5
Q

asexual reproduction

A

a method of reproduction that produces genetically identical cells without the fusion of gametes

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6
Q

plasmids

A

a small circular loop of DNA that is separate from a chromosome, typically found in bacteria

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7
Q

what occurs in elongation

A

the cell will elongate to prepare to separate into two new cells and the duplicated circular chromosomes migrate to opposite sides of the cell

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8
Q

what occurs in septum formation

A

as the cell undergoes cytokinesis by pinching inwards, thus creating a septum. as plasmids replicate independently of the circular chromosome, they won’t always be evenly distributed between the two cells

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9
Q

what occurs in cell division

A

as a new cell wall and membrane are formed down the centre of the cell, two new genetically identical cells are formed

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10
Q

cytokinesis

A

the division of the cytoplasm and formation of two daughter cells

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11
Q

septum

A

dividing wall formed during binary fission

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12
Q

what are the 3 stages of the eukaryotic cell cycle

A

interphase — cellular growth and duplication of chromosomes
mitosis — separation of sister chromatids and the formation of two new nuclei cytokinesis — division of the cytoplasm and formation of two daughter cells.

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13
Q

interphase

A

the first stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle which involves cellular growth and duplication of chromosomes. Composed of three phases: G1, S, and G2

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14
Q

chromosome

A

a structure composed of DNA tightly wrapped around histone proteins. Carries the genetic information (genes)
of a cell

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15
Q

mitosis

A

the second stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle, which involves the complete separation of sister chromatids and nuclei

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16
Q

sister chromatids

A

the two identical halves of a replicated chromosome

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17
Q

interphase- overview

A

first and longest stage
the cell synthesises the necessary DNA, proteins and organelles required for growth and replication.
DNA in the nucleus exists as long chromatin threads
there are 3 substages

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18
Q

chromatin

A

chromosomes (DNA and proteins) that have been unwound and loosely packed during interphase

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19
Q

Gap 1 (G1) phase- SIR

A

Synthesising proteins for DNA replication
Increasing the volume of its cytosol
Replicating its organelles
will either proceed to S or G0

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20
Q

Gap 0 (G0) phase

A

quiescent- dormant cells that can re-enter the cell cycle
terminally differentiated- cells that have fully specialised and no longer replicate

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21
Q

Synthesis (S) phase

A

chromosomes turn into 2 identical sister chromatids held together by a centromere
our non-reproductive/somatic cells are diploid, 2 sets of paired chromosomes (2n)

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22
Q

Gap 2 (G2) phase

A

volume of the cytosol increases
synthesises proteins in preparation for mitosis

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23
Q

mitosis

A

separation of sister chromatids through PMAT and separates te DNA so that a complete genome is present in each daughter cell

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24
Q

prophase

A

DNA is condensed and wrapped around histones, producing visible chromosomes
centrioles migrate to the poles of the cell, spindle fibres start to form

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25
Q

metaphase

A

chromosomes align in the equator of the cell, spindle fibres connect to chromosomes. M for middle

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26
Q

anaphase

A

spindles contract, pulling apart the chromatids and splitting the centromere. the sister chromatids pull away from each other, cleavage furrow starts to form
A for away

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27
Q

telophase

A

chromosomes decondensed at the opposite ends and new nuclei form around them. the spindle fibres break down

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28
Q

cytokinesis in animal cells

A

a cleavage furrow forms. a loop forms, pinching the two plasma membrane

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29
Q

cytokinesis in plants

A

a cell plate is produced between daughter cells to produce the cell wall

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30
Q

what are the 3 checkpoints

A

G1 checkpoint, G2 checkpoint, metaphase checkpoint

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31
Q

gap 1 checkpoint

A

cell size- is it large enough?
replication of proteins- are there enough?
dna- is it mutation free?

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32
Q

gap 2 checkpoint

A

check for replicated DNA and that theres enough resources for mitosis

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33
Q

metaphase checkpoint

A

checks the alignment of chromosomes and the spindle fibre formation

34
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed and controlled cell death

35
Q

what are the two methods that apoptosis can be triggeerd

A

the mitochondrial pathway- intrinsic or the death receptor pathway- extrinsic

36
Q

what is the mitochondrial pathway in apoptosis

A

the mitochrondria detects damage or malfunction-> releases cytochrome c-> binds with cytosolic proteins forming apoptosomes-> activates caspase enzymes-> initaties apoptosis

37
Q

what is the death receptor pathway in apoptsos

A

death signalling molecules are recognised by death receptor proteins on the surface -> released by immune cells -> bind to death receptor protein -> initiates caspase enzymes -> initiates apoptosis

38
Q

what are the apoptosis stages

A

caspases activated by mitochondrial/external death receptor -> digest intracellular materials -> cell shrinks, nucleus condenses, blebs -> bulging of plasma membrane to form apoptotic bodies -> cytoskeleton breakdown also forms apoptotic bodies -> phagocytosis where the phagocytes eat the damaged cell

39
Q

caspase enzymes

A

catalysts that cleave specific intracellular proteins during apoptosis

40
Q

cytochrome c

A

a protein embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane

41
Q

blebbing

A

the bulging of the plasma membrane to form apoptotic bodies

42
Q

apoptotic bodies

A

vesicles containing cell contents that are released from a dying cell during apoptosis and engulfed by phagocytes

43
Q

phagocytes

A

a cell of the immune system responsible for engulfing and destroying harmful microorganisms and foreign material

44
Q

phagocytosis

A

endocytosis of solid material or food particles

45
Q

necrosis

A

the unregulated cell death initiated by damage. the cell will swell and burst, releasing its contents into the environment. inflammation and damage will occur to nearby cells and tissues

46
Q

regulatory genes

A

found at each checkpoint and produce regulatory proteins which control the expression of other genes

47
Q

regulatory proteins

A

regulate or determine whether errors at the checkpoints should undergo repair or apoptosis

48
Q

what are 2 factors that mutations occur from

A

mutagens and carcinogens

49
Q

mutagens

A

induce genetic alterations and damage hereditary material (DNA) and CAN cause cancer

50
Q

can mutations be passed dow to future generations unless in germline cells

A

no

51
Q

carcinogens

A

mutagenic agents that trigger cancer-causing mutations

52
Q

what are the 2 groups of genes that are involved in regulating the cell cycle

A

proto-oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes

53
Q

protooncogenes

A

generally maintain and promote growth and development of cells and promote progression through the cell cycle

54
Q

what happens when protooncogenes are mutated

A

when mutated they turn into oncogenes that no longer regulate cell cycle progression. they deregulate the cell cycle-> overstimulation of growth signals

55
Q

tumour suppressor genes

A

code for proteins that promote apoptosis, repressing progression. they inhibit cell growth promote apoptosis in damaged cells and decrease cell growth

56
Q

mutated tumour suppressor genes

A

the cell cycle becomes deregulated resulting in uncontrollable division, antioncogenes

57
Q

cancer

A

uncontrolled cell division because of mutations, forming abnormal cell growths
benign or malignant. a disease caused by the uncontrolled replication of cells with the ability to migrate to other parts of the body

58
Q

benign tumours

A

a tumour that cannot spread throughout other tissues and organs. relatively slow-growing masses of cells that are enclosed in a capsule that prevents abnormal cells from separating

59
Q

malignant tumours

A

cells of some benign tumours can mutate further and become malignant where they gain the ability to invade nearby tissues and/or enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system. thus spreading to other parts of the body

60
Q

metastasis

A

spread of a primary tumour to another location, secondary tumour

61
Q

how are secondary tumours defined

A

secondary tumours are defined according to the origin of the primary tumour

62
Q

cancer cells

A

large, variable-shaped nuclei with small cytoplasmic volume- the tumours have formed new blood vessels and increased survival
may vary in size and shape and cells are disorganised in shape
lose the ability to specialise and elevate the expression of cell markers
lots of dividing cells and poorly defined tumour boundaries

63
Q

syndactyly

A

apoptosis doesn’t occur between fingers

64
Q

abnormal embryonic development

A

if embryonic development like mitosis and apoptosis don’t occur properly to form body systems and limbs then abnormal embryonic development occurs

65
Q

stem cells

A

undifferentiated cells that can become other cells

66
Q

what can stem cells do

A

self renew-> continually divide and replicate to repopulate an entire cell line
potency-> capacity to differentiate into other cell types

67
Q

what are the ways potency can be classified?

A

totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, unipotent

68
Q

totipotent

A

can differentiate into any cell species and give rise to new organisms.
e.g. zygotes-> fertilised eggs.
toti-totally

69
Q

pluripotent

A

differentiates into many types of cells like those found in an embryo

70
Q

multipotent

A

differentiate into cells for certain tissue/organs and are specific like bone marrow stem cells that produce blood cells

71
Q

unipotent

A

can’t differentiate any more but can self renew

72
Q

endoderm line

A

endo-> enter, inner germ line layer

73
Q

mesoderm line

A

middle germ line layer

74
Q

ectoderm

A

outer germ line layer

75
Q

what are some multipotent stem cells that come from the endoderm

A

lung or pancreatic cells

76
Q

what are some multipotent stem cells that come from the mesodermic line

A

heart or muscle cells or red blood cells

77
Q

what are some multipotent stem cells that come from the ectodermic line

A

skin or neurons

78
Q

what is the process from ovulation to implantation to embryos

A

Day 0: oocyte 1 cell unfertilised
Day 1:zygote 1 cell fertilised
Day 2: first cleavage, mitosis 2 cells
Day 1-5: cell division
Day 5: morula
Day 6: blastocyst
After 3 weeks: gastrulation occurs, forming gastrula with 3 germ layers of multipotent cells

79
Q

types of stem cell research as a treatment

A

cell based therapy for diseases linked with excessive cell death
producing human cells for medical trials
produce human cells to test how disease effets cells and system

80
Q

how can adult stem cells be used

A

can be harvested from placenta, umbilical cord or bone marrow- pluripotent or multipotent
embryonic stem cells that are totipotent are more useful but have ethical issues

81
Q
A

bio unit 1 (5 decks)

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