Ch. 4 Origins of Criminal Behavior: Learning and Situational Factors Flashcards
Three Types of Learning (Review)
CLASSICAL (pavlovian conditioning) – is learning that is established subconsciously through association (Pavlov’s dog salivating at the sound of the dinner bell)
- Assumes NO USE of ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE
INSTRUMENTAL learning (operant conditioning) – is learning that employs reward and punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Consciously learned.
- Uses ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE
SOCIAL LEARNING – Learning from watching others and organizing social experiences in the brain.
- USES ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE – MOST COMPLEX.
Classical Conditioning
Keywords: A STIMULUS produces a RESPONSE
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING is a type of learning in which one SUBCONSCIOUSLY LEARNS to LINK two or more STIMULI to ANTICIPATE EVENTS.
- Think Ivan Pavlov’s dog who salivated when he heard a bell because he was classically conditioned to associate the bell with actual food that had once accompanied the bell.
More specifically, a NEUTRAL STIMULUS (bell)** is paired with an **UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (food).
- Before the conditioning, the presentation of food led to an UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (salivating).
- After the conditioning, the Bell becomes a CONDITIONED STIMULUS that leads to a reflexive or CONDITIONED RESPONSE (salivating).
Baby example:
- Mother strokes forehead (NEUTRAL STIMULUS) of Baby as he sucks (UNCONDITIONAL RESPONSE) during breastfeeding (UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS).
- After sufficient repetition, the mother needs only stroke the baby’s forehead (CONDITIONED STIMULUS) for the baby to start reflexively sucking (CONDITIONED RESPONSE).
- UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS – Breast Milk. This stimulus naturally brings about the UNCONDITIONAL RESPONSE
- UNCONDITIONAL RESPONSE – Sucking (If Mother’s breastmilk is there, Baby’s gonna suck)
- NEUTRAL STIMULUS – stroking baby’s head – is paired with the UNCONDITIONAL STIMULUS (Mother strokes baby’s head as he receives breastmilk)
Once this process has been completed so many times that stroking the baby’s forehead causes him to reflexively suck even without the presence of breast milk, then you have created a:
- CONDITIONED STIMULUS – the stroking of the baby’s head – which brings about a…
- CONDITIONED RESPONSE – sucking
REMEMBER that the CONDITIONED stimulus/response exists only AFTER the classical conditioning is complete and successful.
Skinner’s Theory of Behavior
SKINNER: ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI are the ONLY DETERMINANTS of ALL BEHAVIOR.
- The ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI become INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
- BEHAVIORS they elicit the DEPENDENT VARIABLES (“dependent” because it is dependent on one or more independent variables).
SCIENTIFIC LAWS – are the CONSISTENT RELATIONSHIP between INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT variables (stimulus and response).
SKINNER said that mental activity can be explained by observing what a person does, and it is what a person does that count.
- Believed that the thoughts, and intentions of a criminal mind are irrelevant.
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCHERS believe that Classical and Operant Conditioning are both real and influence our behavior, but most also suggest that ADDITIONAL FACTORS must be introduced to ACCURATELY EXPLAIN and PREDICT BEHAVIOR.
Situationism
Keywords: INDEPENDENT THINKING and FREE WILL are MYTHS
SITUATIONISM is a BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE that says ALL BEHAVIOR is AT THE MERCY OF stimuli in the ENVIRONMENT and individuals have virtually no control or self-determination.
Reductionism
Keywords: REDUCE COMPLEX Behavior TO multiple SIMPLE Behaviors.
REDUCTIONISM refers to REDUCING COMPLEX human behavior by breaking it down into more SIMPLE behavior.
- In other words, complicated behavior can be best understood by examining the simplest stimulus-response chains of behavior.
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Keywords: Individuals must OPERATE (act) on the ENVIRONMENT to RECEIVE A RESPONSE (Either reward or punishment).
OPERANT CONDITIONING a form of learning that REQUIRES INDIVIDUALS to actively OPERATE on their ENVIRONMENT.
- Operant conditioning, then, is LEARNING to either MAKE or WITHHOLD a particular RESPONSE because of its CONSEQUENCES.
- In Pavlov’s experiments on CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, the dogs did NOT OPERATE on their environments to receive rewards; the EVENT (food) OCCURRED REGARDLESS of what they did.
Skinner called this “Responding Conditioning” in contrast to “Classical Conditioning”
Ex: Skinner trained pigeons to peck at keys or push levers for food (rewards). The pecking or pushing are OPERATIONS on the ENVIRONMENT.
- Children often operate on their environments in this way, “learning” the effectiveness of certain behaviors as they go along—but so do adults. You may have learned that complimenting a coworker improves the quality of your day while being the office grump drives people away.
Reinforcement
Keywords: INCREASES PROBABILITY of some BEHAVIOR
REINFORCEMENT – anything that INCREASES the PROBABILITY of a FUTURE RESPONSE.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – GOAL is to INCREASE a DESIRED BEHAVIOR – we GAIN SOMETHING we DESIRE as a consequence of certain behavior.
- Ex: INTRODUCTION of a PLEASANT STIMULUS following a DESIRED behavior
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – GOAL is to INCREASE a DESIRED BEHAVIOR – we AVOID an UNPLEASANT event or stimulus as a consequence of certain behavior.
- Ex: REMOVAL of an AVERSIVE STIMULUS following a DESIRED behavior
PUNISHMENT – GOAL is to DECREASE UNDESIRED BEHAVIOR – it is PAINFUL Stimulus as a consequence of behavior.
- Ex: INTRODUCTION of an AVERSIVE STIMULUS following UNDESIRED behavior
- NOT Considered very as effective because it tends to affect behavior only TEMPORARILY.
EXTINCTION – GOAL is to ELIMINATE UNDESIRED BEHAVIOR – s when an individual RECEIVES NEITHER REINFORCEMENT nor punishment
- Ex: Provides NO REINFORCEMENT or PUNISHMENT following UNDESIRED behavior
- The LACK of REINFORCEMENT causes the individual to DROP the BEHAVIOR.
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NOTE: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT is NOT NECESSARILY in the form of PUNISHMENT. It is ANY REINFORCEMENT that causes an individual to AVOID an UNPLEASANT stimulus.
- Ex: A Child may fake being sick to avoid the unpleasantness of a presentation due that day at school.
- BOTH POSITIVE and NEGATIVE reinforcement are intended to INCREASE the LIKELIHOOD of FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Social Learning Theory
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY, in general, we LEARN primarily BY OBSERVING and listening to people around us—THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT. Emphasizes the imitation of models and reinforcement of their behavior to determine their future behavior.
- (Differential Association Theory is the Criminal arm of this theory).
UNLIKE Classical and Operant Conditioning, which ignore conscious thought, SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY places great EMPHASIS on COGNITIVE PROCESSES (thinking and remembering).
Expectancy Theory (Rotter)
EXPECTANCY THEORY – argues that a person’s PERFORMANCE LEVEL is BASED ON that person’s EXPECTATION that BEHAVING in a particular way will LEAD to a GIVEN OUTCOME.
- BEFORE doing anything, we ask, “What has happened to me before in this situation, and what will I gain this time?”
- APPLYING EXPECTANCY to criminal behavior, we would say that when people engage in unlawful conduct, they expect to gain something in the form of status, power, material goods, etc.
- Usually, when people act violently, they do so because that approach has been USED SUCCESSFULLY in the PAST (at least they believe it has been successful).
Imitational Model of Social Learning (Also called Observational Learning) (Bandura)
While Expectancy Theory says past personal success will create our future success, Bandura’s IMITATIONAL MODEL of SOCIAL LEARNING says individuals who have simply OBSERVED SOMEONE ELSE GAIN through a VIOLENT APPROACH, will TRY IT for THEMSELVES.
- The MORE SIGNIFICANT THE MODELS, the GREATER their IMPACT ON BEHAVIOR.
- IMPORTANT: It’s NOT so much what the model says as WHAT THE MODEL DOES that is EFFECTIVE.
- Models who are HONORED (an Oscar or MVP) are MORE likely to be imitated. Those who are PUNISHED (Incarcerated, humiliated) are LESS likely to be imitated.
Differential Association-Reinforcement (DAR) (Akers)
DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION-REINFORCEMENT (DAR) THEORY says people LEARN to COMMIT CRIMES through INTERPERSONAL INTERACTIONS with their SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT.
- This DIFFERS from Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory by REQUIRING the ADDITION of REINFORCEMENT in an individual’s DECISION to partake in ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR.
- SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT is particularly important – things as simple as “Good job” or a pat on the back from peers.
The group first adopts its own NORMATIVE DEFINITIONS (Definitions of what conduct is good or bad).
- These DEFINITIONS of what is GOOD or BAD operate as DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI (social signals transmitted by peer groups to indicate whether certain kinds of behavior will be rewarded or punished)
- TWO CLASSES of DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI operate in promoting deviant behavior.
- POSITIVE Discriminative Stimuli are the signals that communicate that CERTAIN BEHAVIORS are ENCOURAGED.
- NEUTRALIZING or JUSTIFYING Discriminative Stimuli, NEUTRALIZES The WARNINGS COMMUNICATED by SOCIETY at large that certain behaviors are inappropriate or unlawful, which MAKES the BEHAVIOR, which others condemn and which the person himself may initially define as bad, seem all right.
- Statements like “Everyone has a price,” “I can’t help myself,” “Everyone else does it,” or “She deserved it” REFLECT THE INFLUENCE of NEUTRALIZING STIMULI because it JUSTIFIES bad behavior (in their mind).
- The MORE people SEE their behavior as JUSTIFIED, the MORE LIKELY they are to ENGAGE in it.
Differential Association Theory (Sutherland)
DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY (Sutherland) says that CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR is LEARNED the same way that all behavior is learned.
- The CRUCIAL FACTORS are WITH WHOM a PERSON ASSOCIATES, for how long, how frequently, how personally meaningful the associations, and how early they occur in the person’s development.
- A person becomes criminal when their social group creates a greater amount of EXAMPLES FAVORABLE to violation of law over EXAMPLES UNFAVORABLE to violation of law – This is the principle of DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION”
- In order for the person to be INFLUENCED by DELINQUENT behavior, the DEVIANT MESSAGES from the “bad companions” must OUTWEIGH CONVENTIONAL ONES.
- ASSOCIATIONS with DEVIANT PEER GROUPS have a MAJOR EFFECT on ILLEGAL BEHAVIOR but it is NOT KNOWN WHICH COMES FIRST: the BEHAVIOR or the ASSOCIATIONS.
NOTE: This theory has some issues that Akers tries to correct with his Differential Association-Reinforcement (DAR) Theory.
Normative Definitions and Discriminative Stimuli
NORMATIVE DEFINITIONS are a group’s DEFINITIONS of what CONDUCT is GOOD or BAD.
These Normative Definitions operate as DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI (SOCIAL SIGNALS transmitted by PEER GROUPS to indicate whether certain kinds of BEHAVIOR will be REWARDED or PUNISHED)
TWO CLASSES of DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI operate in promoting deviant behavior:
- POSITIVE Discriminative Stimuli are the SIGNALS that communicate that CERTAIN BEHAVIORS are ENCOURAGED.
- NEUTRALIZING or JUSTIFYING Discriminative Stimuli, NEUTRALIZES The WARNINGS COMMUNICATED by SOCIETY at large that certain behaviors are inappropriate or unlawful, which MAKES the BEHAVIOR seem all right to the group or individual.
- STATEMENTS like “Everyone has a price,” “I can’t help myself,” “Everyone else does it,” or “She deserved it” REFLECT THE INFLUENCE of NEUTRALIZING STIMULI because it JUSTIFIES bad behavior (in their mind).
- The MORE people SEE their behavior as JUSTIFIED, the MORE LIKELY they are to ENGAGE in it.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Berkowitz)
FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS – Focuses on FRUSTRATION-INDUCED CRIMINALITY which says that people who use violence to reduce frustration will, under extreme frustration, become MORE VIOLENT THAN USUAL, possibly even resorting to murder and other violent actions.
- Using VIOLENT BEHAVIOR to REDUCE FRUSTRATION will be REINFORCED since it REDUCES UNPLEASANT AROUSAL by ALTERING the STIMULI.
- However, in many instances when VIOLENCE (in the form of VIOLENT PROTEST, RIOTS, or LOOTING) was ANTICIPATED, none resulted, so the RELATIONSHIP is NOT CLEARCUT on THAT LEVEL.
Socialized and Individual Offender (Berkowitz)
Berkowitz (1962) said there were TWO MAIN CLASSIFICATIONS of CRIMINALS:
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SOCIALIZED OFFENDER – Commit crimes because they have LEARNED to, or expect rewards, as a result of their criminal activity.
* These are the ANTISOCIAL deviants that we’ve been studying, complete with MULTIPLE RISK FACTORS -
INDIVIDUAL OFFENDER – by contrast, is the product of a long series of FRUSTRATIONS resulting from UNMET NEEDS.
* Being THWARTED from their GOALS seems to be particularly important in the development of ‘individual’ offenders.
