CH 4 & 8 - Research and experimental design

Question 1

AFter formulating the research question you should…

Answer 1

Formulate the hypothesis

Question 2

Ater formulating a hypothesis you should…

Answer 2

define your variables

Question 3

After defining your variables you should…

Answer 3

choose your measurements

Question 4

After choosing your measurements you should…

Answer 4

design the study

Question 5

After designing the study you should…

Answer 5

Collect the data

Question 6

After collecting the data you should…

Answer 6

Analyze the data

Question 7

Research questions should be

Answer 7

Clear, focused, concise, complex, arguable

Question 8

Clear research questions…

Answer 8

provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily understand its purpose
without needing additional explanatio

Question 9

A focused research question is

Answer 9

narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows

Question 10

A concise research question is

Answer 10

expressed in the fewest possible words

Question 11

A complex research question is

Answer 11

not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis
and analysis of ideas and sources prior to composition of an answer

Question 12

An arguable research question means…

Answer 12

its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts

Question 13

Directional hypotheses

Answer 13

Specifies what we expect the relationship between two variables to be

Question 14

Non-directional hypotheses

Answer 14

Specifies the existence of the relationship without making assumptions about the nature of this relationship

Question 15

The opposite of an alternative hypothesis is…

Answer 15

A null hypothesis (no relationship between variables)

Question 16

Does rejecting the null hypothesis prove the alternative hypothesis?

Answer 16

No. It only supports it

Question 17

What does it mean to support the alternative hypothesis, in statistical terms?

Answer 17

Support means that we found out there is a very small chance to find the results we have assuming the null hypothesis is true

Question 18

What are the three general categories of variables?

Answer 18

Situational, Response, Participant/classificatory

Question 19

Situational Variable

Answer 19

Characteristic/event a participant is exposed to - characteristic of situation/ environment (e.g. IV)

Question 20

Response variable

Answer 20

Participant’s reaction/behavior (e.g. DV)

Question 21

Participant/classificatory variable

Answer 21

Pre-existing aspect of participant that is of interest

Question 22

0 = r means that

Answer 22

There is no correlation

Question 23

Non-experimental reseach

Answer 23

lacks manipulation of ID and results in descriptive or correlational results

Question 24

Criteria for claiming causality

Answer 24

Covariation, temporal precedence, internal validity

Question 25

Covariance

Answer 25

If x changes, so does Y

Question 26

Temporal precedence

Answer 26

the cause comes before effect Directionality problem

Question 27

Directionality problem

Answer 27

Before an experiment We don't know which variable is the cause and which one is the effect

Question 28

Internal validity

Answer 28

How much an evidence supports a claim. Must RULE OUT alternative explanations to be high

Question 29

Categorical independent variable

Answer 29

IV has several levels that correspond with experimental conditions (also called treatments) - e.g. medication 1, 2, control

Question 30

Continuous independent variable

Answer 30

IV is a spectrum. (e.g. height)

Question 31

Categorical dependent variable

Answer 31

DV is divided into categories and person's measurements falls into one of them. (e.g. if person passed a test or not)

Question 32

Continuous dependent variable

Answer 32

DV has no categories and is a spectrum. Person's measurements falls on a scale (e.g. seconds to perform a task)

Question 33

Types of dependent variables

Answer 33

Self report Physiological (biological data) Behavioral (observed by scientist)

Question 34

Third variable

Answer 34

Variable that causes/impacts BOTH variables of interest (E.g. T causes X and Y)

Question 35

Confounding variable

Answer 35

Variable that CO-VARIES with a variable of interest Based on operational definition, IMPOSSIBLE to separate from the variable it covaries with Can explain part of the results (e.g X + C cause Y)

Question 36

Mediator variable

Answer 36

A process explains the relationship between two variables (e.g. X causes M that causes Y)

Question 37

How to test for mediation

Answer 37

1. Test if X causes Y 2. Test if X causes M 3. Test if M causes Y 4. Run a regression test to see if X or M predict Y better. See if X causing Y disappears. 5. Establish temporal precedence

Question 38

Random assignment

Answer 38

Randomly put participants into the different levels/conditions No systematic reasons for why participants are in certain conditions More effective as number of participants increase Random variables are balanced out

Question 39

Systematic variability

Answer 39

When levels of a variable coincide (in a predictable way) with group assigned membership- creates potential confound EX: (like if situation 1 has worse equipment than situation 2)

Question 40

Unsystematic variability

Answer 40

Individual differences withing group. Random. Variable fluctuates independently of group assigned.

Question 41

Control vs experimental groups must be

Answer 41

Identical, except for the IV

Question 42

Between subject design

Answer 42

Participant is tested in one condition ONLY

Question 43

Within subjects design

Answer 43

Each participant is tested under all conditions

Question 44

Posttest only design

Answer 44

IV groups are set and later DV is measured

Question 45

Pretest/Posttest design

Answer 45

Measure DV before test, IV groups are divided (into different conditions) Complete the same DV measurement again

Question 46

Posttest only Pros and Cons

Answer 46

There is no pretest to sensitize participants to the hypothesis but Can't measure change over time

Question 47

Pretest/Posttest

Answer 47

Useful when interested in changes over time and when you want to be certain the groups are equivalent at the start (baseline) BUT must be careful to not make the participants change their spontaneous behavior

Question 48

Matched groups/ pairs (or yoked design

Answer 48

Similar participants (in relation to variable) are grouped into sets. Each member is matched with a similar person, and the pairs are randomly split into the conditions.

Question 49

Repeated measures design

Answer 49

Within-subjects design Participant is exposed to 1 IV condition, is tested (DV), is exposed to 2nd IV condition, Is tested again (DV)

Question 50

Concurrent-measures design

Answer 50

Within subjects Participant is exposed to all levels of IV at the same time. Dependent variable is measured based on the behavior or attitude response from the double exposure.

Question 51

Couterbalancing

Answer 51

Repeated measures design --> order can affect results. Counterbalancing controls order effects by presenting the levels of IV in different sequences (randomly assign participants to each sequence)

Question 52

Full counterbalancing

Answer 52

All possible condition orders are represented - there is a IV level for each possible order

Question 53

Partial counterbalancing

Answer 53

There is an IV level for SOME possible exposure sequences (e.g. latin square: one level is first in at least one condition)

Question 54

Within subject designs PROS

Answer 54

No group differences (because there is no control group and experimental groups) Each participant is their own control More statistical power Requires few participants

Question 55

Power (in an experiment)

Answer 55

The likelihood that a study will show statistically significant results

Question 56

Order effects

Answer 56

Threat to internal validity in a within-subjects design, in which exposure to one condition changes participant responses to a later condition

Question 57

Order effects - Practice effects

Answer 57

Participant performance improves over time due to practice of the measurement

Question 58

Order effects - Fatigue effects

Answer 58

Participant's performance gets worse because they get tired

Question 59

Order effects - Carryover/Contrast effects

Answer 59

When contamination carries over from one condition to the next (e.g. understanding what is being tested)

Question 60

Within subjects designs CONS

Answer 60

Creates a potential for order effects Unpractical Might be impossible More likely to create demand characteristics (knowing what the study is about and wanting to succeed)