Ch 23 Respiratory Flashcards
What is respiration?
Continuous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide - between atmosphere and body cells
What systems contribute to respiration?
Respiratory, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Cardiovascular
How does the Respiratory System contribute to respiration?
Responsible for exchange of gases between atmosphere and lungs
How do the Skeletal and Muscular Systems contribute to respiration?
Alter the volume and pressure in thoracic cavity to facilitate movement of air in/out of lungs
How does the Nervous System contribute to respiration?
stimulates and coordinates contraction of muscles for breathing
How does the Cardiovascular System contribute to respiration?
Transports Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between lungs and cells
What are the 4 functions of respiratory system?
Air passageway
Site for exchange of gases
Detection of odors
Sound production
What are the two divisions of the respiratory system?
What are each of their 2 corresponding divisions?
STRUCTURAL ZONE
- Upper Respiratory Tract
- Lower Respiratory Tract
FUNCTIONAL ZONE
- Conducting zone
- Respiratory Zone
STRUCTURAL ZONE
what structures belong where?
Upper respiratory tract - 3
-Nose/Nasal Cavity/Pharynx
Lower Respiratory tract - 6
-Larynx/Trachea/Bronchi/Bronchioles/Alveolar Ducts/Alveoli
FUNCTIONAL ZONE
what structures belong where?
CONDUCTING ZONE
- passageways that transport or conduct air
- from nose to the end of terminal bronchioles
RESPIRATORY ZONE
- Structures that participate in gas exchange with the blood
- respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
Describe mucosal lining of the respiratory passageway.
- Gets progressively thinner from the nasal cavity to alveoli
- Mucous membrane consists of: (mucus on top) epithelium, basement membrane & lamina propia
- contains goblet cells
What is the pathway of air from nose to alveoli? 8
Nose/Nasal Cavity –> Pharynx –> Trachea –> Main Bronchi –> Lobar Bronchi –> Segmental Bronchi –> Bronchioles (ending in terminal bronchioles) –> Alveoli (site of gas exchange)
What is the nose composed of?
bone, hyaline cartilage, dense irregular connective tissue, covered with skin
What forms the bridge of nose?
paired nasal bones
Describe the supporting bridge of the nose
1 pair of lateral cartilages (mid area of nose beside bridge)
2 pairs of alar cartilages (on both sides) (1 pair right under lateral & 1 pair on outer nostril/nose tip)
What are the nostrils?
The opening into nasal cavity
Describe nasal cavity shape
oblong-shaped
extends from nostrils to CHoanae
What is on the floor of the nasal cavity?
hard palate (1st) and soft palate (further back)
What bones (in order) make up the roof of the nasal cavity?
Nasal / Frontal/ Ethmoid / Sphenoid
Describe the nasal septum
Divides nasal cavity into left and right sides
formed by septal nasal cartilage
What are the 3 regions of the nasal cavity?
Nasal Vestibule (tip of nose) Respiratory Region (largest/main) Olfactory region (small/atop resp. region)
Describe the conchae and meatus structures, of the nasal cavity
COnchae = lateral walls on each side
Meatus = are the valleys within the conchae walls
Functions of COnchae and Meatus
COnchae = produce turbulence in the inhaled air
Meatus = drainage
Describe the functions of the 3 regions of the nasal cavity
Nasal Vestibule: lined by Vissabrae (skin & coarse hairs) that trap large particles
Respiratory Region: Passage for which air enters respiratory system (contains conchae/meatus)
Olfactory region: the receptors detects diff odors
What is the function of the Choanae/
“doorways” from nasal cavity to pharynx
Describe layout of tonsils
Pharyngeal tonsil (highest)
Tubal Tonsils
Palatine Tonsil
Lingual Tonsil (lowest)
What is the function of the tonsils in respiration?
trap germs and bacteria we breathe in
What is the major function of the Nasal Cavity?
warm, moisture/humidfy, and filter//cleanse air entering the body before it reaches lungs
Hair and mucus lining the nasal cavity trap dust/mold/pollen/other before they can enter body
What is the function of the nose?
Entrance for air
hair cleans the air of foreign particles
What are the 4 Paranasal Sinuses
Frontal Sinus (middle forehead) Ethmoidal Sinus (inner portion of eyelid) Sphenoidal Sinus (outer portion of eyelid) Maxillary Sinus (to sides of nose)
Describe pharynx
throat; funnel shaped passage way
What are the 3 regions of the pharynx
Nasopharynx (posterior to nasal cavity/highest)
Oropharynx (posterior to oral cavity/mid)
Laryngopharynx (posterior to larynx/lowest)
Which regions of pharynx are common to both respiratory and digestive systems? Why?
Describe function of their lining.
Oropharynx & Laryngopharynx
both serve as common passageway for food and air
Both lined by nonkeratinezd stratified squamous epithelium.
Protects from abrasion from swalling food
How is food prevented from entering the regions only designed for air?
The soft palate blocks the material from oropharynx and oral cavity from entering.
Soft palate elevates/blocks when we swallow.
What regions of the pharynx contain tonsils? What tonsils do they contain?
Nasopharynx - contain Pharyngeal tonsils
Oropharynx - contain Palatine and Lingual tonsils
What does the lower respiratory tract include?
Conducting pathways - larynx/trachea/bronchi/bronchioles
Gas exchange pathways - respiratory bronchioles/alveolar ducts/alveoli
What is the larynx?
voice box
cylindrical structure
Where does the larynx begin from and end to?
Pharynx - Laryngopharynx -> opens to the Laryngeal Inlet of Larynx -> Larynx continues until Trachea
What are the 5 major functions of the larynx?
- Passageway for air
- Prevent ingested materials from entering respiratory tract
- Produce sound for speech
- Helps increase pressure in abdominal cavity
- Participate in sneeze & cough reflex
How does the larynx prevent ingested matierals from entering the respiratory tract?
The laryngeal inlet is covered by the epiglottis to prevent ingested materials from entering the lower respiratory passageway.
How does the larynx assist in increasing pressure in the abdominal cavity?
Epiglottis (larynx) closes over the laryngeal inlet so air can’t escape (Valsalva maneuver)
How does the larynx participate in sneeze and cough reflex?
Abdominal muscles contract forcefully.
Pressure increases in throacic cavity.
Vocal cords go from closed to open abruptly.
Describe Larynx anatomy
supportive frame work of 9 pieces of cartilage that are supported by ligaments and muscles.
What are the 9 cartilages of larynx
Single - thyroid, Cricoid, Epiglottis
Paired - Arytenoid, Corniculate, Cuneiform
What forms the flexible support of the larynx
9 cartilage
extrinsic & intrinsic ligaments (skeletal muscles of larynx wall)
larynx - what do intrinsic muscles function in?
sound production
larynx - what do extrinsic muscles function in?
elevation of larynx
How is sound produced in general?
vocal cords vibrate as air passes over
intrinsic laryngeal musscles narrow opening of rima glottidis - which allows air past
what is the rima glottidis
the opening between the vocal folds. it opens and closes
Range of voice - how is it determined?
by length and thickness of vocal folds
men generally have thicker/longer = deeper voice
What is pitch?
the frequency of sound waves
Pitch - how is it determined
by amount of tension/tautness on vocal folds
regulated by intrinsic laryngeal muscle increasing tension on vocal folds.
more tension = higher sound
less tension = lower pitch
Loudness - how is it determined?
depends on force of air passing across the vocal cords
Alot of air forced thru rima glottidis = loud sound
less air = low sound
whisper = vocal cords arent vibrating
What is the trachea?
the windpipe open (patent) tube extends from neck into the mediastinum. Esophagus sits behind it. Sternum partially covers front of it
Shape of trachea
tubular organ, flexible, slightly rigid
what does the trachea connect?
connects the larynx to the two main bronchi
tracheal cartilages
the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage C because 1 side (posterior) is open Support the anterior/lateral walls approx 15-20 rings Kinda sit on top of each other but not directly
Annular ligaments
connect the tracheal cartilage rings together superior/inferiorly
trachealis muscle
connects the OPEN side of tracheal cartilage rings togther
this is the posterior side facing the esophagus
Carina
section of trachea where it splits into the 2 main bronchi
bottom inverted V
What is the function of mucus in trachea?
traps microbes/dust/other particles
and propels into larynx/pharynx so it can be swallowed or expelled
Describe the bronchial tree. Pattern.
starts at 2 main bronchi -> branches into Lobar Bronchi (primary) -> branches into Segmental Bronchi (secondary) -> branches into Bronchioles -> Terminal Bronchioles
Ends at the alveolar ducts
How are bronchi different from bronchioles?
Bronchi are main passageway into lungs.
Become smaller the closer they get to lung tissue.
Bronchioles are the smaller tubes/passageways
How are terminal bronchioles different from respiratory bronchioles?
Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting pathway.
They lead into ->
Respiratory bronchioles are the first segments of the respiratory zone.
What is bronchoconstriction?
constriction of airway
-airflow decreased when smooth muscle contracts and narrows the diameter of the lumen (opening)
What is bronchodilation?
dilation of airway
- airflow increased when the smooth muscle relaxes which widens the diameter lumen
Benefit of bronchoconstriction
lessens amount of potentially harmful substances that may be inhaled into alveoli
Benefit of bronchodilation?
maximizes amount of air moved between atmosphere and alveoli; increases oxygen delivered to alveoli and the amount of CO2 removed.
Describe the structure of alveolus (singular for alveoli)
small, saccular outpocketing
think of hollow grape
becomes slightly flattened
might look hexagonal/polygonal in cross section
has small openings in walls called alveolar pores.
internal surface is moist
What are the 3 types of cells alveoli are composed of?
Alveolar Type I cell
Alveolar Type II Cell
Alveolar Macrophage
Describe Alveolar Type I Cell
- most common - 95% of surface
- primary cells that form each alveolus
- collectively form the alveolar epithelium
Describe Alveolar Type II Cell
- less numerous
- secrete an oily fluid called pulmonary surfactant that prevents collapse of alveoli
Describe Alveolar Macrophages
Dust Cells
Leukocyte
engulfs microorganisms and particulate material that reaches the alveoli.
they can leave the lungs
Describe the respiratory membrane.
very thin barrier consists of alveolar type 1
place of gas exchange
Consists of: alveolar wall, capillary wall and basement membrane
What is the function of the respiratory membrane
allows gases to be exchanged between the pulmonary capillaries, or blood vessels, and the respiratory units of the lungs
How does gas move across this membrane?
What is this called?
Called - Gas Exchange
Oxygen diffuses from alveolus across membrane into the pulmonary capillary. This allows RBC’s in the blood to become oxygenated.
Conversely –
Carbon Dioxide diffuses from the blood within the pulmonary capillary, thru the respiratory membrane to enter the alveolus.
At alveolus the CO2 is expired into external environment.
Describe the structure of the lungs
Each lung has wide concave base, and an apex (top,inner point)
Conical shape
Hilum of lung
indented region on the mediastinal surface ( look at it from the side)
Root of hilum
the structures that extend from the hilum and consist of passing thru - bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymph vessels, autonomic nerves
Describe the right lung
Larger and wider
subdivided into 3 lobes by 2 fissures
Horizontal Fissure separates superior lobe from middle lobe
Oblique Fissure separates middle lobe from inferior lobe.
Describe the left lung
slightly smaller than R bc heart projects into it
has 2 lobes
Superior and inferior lobe separated by an oblique fissure
Lingula- a projection on L lung from the superior lobe that is similar to the middle lobe in R lung.
has 2 surface indentations: cardiac impression on medial surface;; Cardiac notch on anterior surface
What are the bronchopulmonary segments
10 segments in right and 8-10 in left
self-contained; if messed up can removed one segment and keep the healthy ones
each segment has marble sized lobules within it
How do lungs remain inflated?
The pressure in the pleural cavity (intrapleural) is lower than the pressure in the lungs (intrapulmonary).
This pressure difference keeps the lungs inflated.
when pressures equal; they will deflate.
What is the pathway of oxygen from air until it gets to the tissue?
1-Air in atmosphere containing O2 inhaled into alveoli
2-Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into to blood
3- O2 transported in blood from lungs to cells of body
4-Oxygen diffuses from blood in systemic capillaries INTO systemic cells during systemic gas exchange.
What is the pathway of CO2?
remember its opposite
(Systemic gas exchange occurs)
5- CO2 diffuses from systemic cells into blood
6- CO2 is transported within blood from systemic cells to lungs
7-CO2 diffuses blood within pulmonary capillaries into alveoli (alveolar gas exchange)
8- Air containing CO2 is exhaled from alveoli into atmosphere.
What is pulmonary ventilation?
Breathing! movement of air between atmosphere and alveoli
What are the 2 phases of pulmonary ventiliation
Inspiration (inhalation)
Expiration (exhalation)
What is quiet breathing?
Eupnea
Rhythmic breathing that occurs at rest
What is forced breathing?
Vigorous breathing that accompanies exercise or hard exertion
what are the muscles of quiet breathing? (2)
D
E
Diaphragm; External intercostal
increases dimensions of thoracic cavity
what are the muscles of forced INspiration (5) S S S P E
sternocleidomastoid scalenes serratus posterior superior pectoralis minor erector spinae
pull upward & outward
what are the muscles of forced EXpiration? (5) T S I E T
Transversus thoracis serratus posterior inferior internal intercostal external oblique transversus abdominis
pull downward & inward
What happens to the thoracic cavity during inspiration?
expands vertically up and down; widens laterally; inferior portion of sternum moves anteriorly to expand (move out and back) and cavity expands
What happens to the thoracic cavity during expiration?
becomes narrow vertically; becomes narrow horizontally ; inferior portion of sternum moves posteriorly (moves inward) and cavity compresses
What happens when the diaphragm contracts and relaxes?
Contracts - increases thoracic cavity vertical dimensions
Relaxes - decreases thoracic cavity dimensions
What is anatomic dead space?
Anatomical dead space is represented by the volume of air that fills the conducting zone of respiration
(made up by the nose, trachea, and bronchi.)
What is physiologic dead space?
the sum of anatomic dead space and alveolar dead space
What is tidal volume?
the amount of air inhaled or exhaled per breath during quiet breathing
Tidal volume for male and females
Male 500 mL
Female 500mL
what is inspiratory capacity?
total ability to inhale
what is inspiratory capacity for male and female
male 3600mL
female 2400mL
what is functional residual capacity
amount of air normally left (residual) in lungs after you expire quietly
what is functional residual capacity for male and female
male 2400mL
female 1800mL
what is vital capacity
measure of the amount of air the lungs are capable of holding
what is vital capacity for male and female
male 4800mL
female 3100mL
what is total lung capacity
total amount of air that can be in the lungs
what is total lung capacity for male and female
male 6000mL
female 4200mL
What is the driving force of gas exchange?
**double check answer
partial pressure gradient??
exists when partial pressure for a specific gas is higher in one region than in another. gas moves from high to low areas.
What is partial pressure?
the pressure exerted by each gas within a mixture of gases
What is the partial pressure gradient?
exists when the partial pressure for a specific gas is higher in one region than in another
How does the gas move in the partial pressure gradient
from region with higher amount of partial pressure to region of lower, may continue until equal
True/False
Alveolar gas exchange AND Systemic gas exchange are dependent upon partial pressure gradients.
TRUUUU
Describe alveolar gas exchange
movement of respiratory gases between blood in pulmonary capillaries and the alveoli of lungs
Describe systemic gas exchange
movement of respiratory gases between blood in systemic capillaries and systemic cells
Describe Henry’s Law
at a given temperature the solubility of gas (enter/leave) in a liquid depends on
1) partial pressure of the gas in air
2) solubility coefficient of the gas in liquid
True/False
Gases vary in their solubility in water
Truuuu
How do solubility of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen compare to each other?
CO2 - most soluble; 24x than O
Oxygen - v low solubility
Nitrogen - least soluble
The ability of blood to transport oxygen is dependent on:
1- solubility coefficient of oxygen in blood plasma
2- presence of hemoglobin
How is oxygen transported thru blood? Simply put.
Transported in Erythrocytes.
Attaches to the iron of the hemoglobin molecules.
Oxygen bound to hemoglobin is
Oxyhemoglobin
How is carbon dioxide transported thru the blood? (3)
1) CO2 dissolved in plasma
2) Bind to amine groups of globin portion of hemoglobin
3) MAJORITY – (combines with dissolves in plasma (combines with water) to become the ion - bicarbonate.
What respiration-related substance does hemoglobin transport?
1) oxygen attached to iron
2) carbon dioxide bound to globin
3) hydrogen ions bound to the globin
Definition of oxygen-hemoglobincurve
relationship between PO2 and percent O2 saturation
PO2= partial pressure of O (mmHg(
percent O2 saturation = amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin; max 40 O2 molecules)
Describe the curve
Typically an S curve. Low to very steep then flattens out a bit..
How does the binding of oxygen and carbon dioxide to hemoglobin change depending on the binding of other molecules?
The binding or release of a substance causes conformational change.
temporarily alters shape of the hemoglobin molecule.
Influences ability for hemoglobin to bind/release the other substances.
What factors influence the amount of oxygen binding (affinity) to hemoglobin?
Most significant - blood PO2
- Temperature (elevated causes release)
- pH changes (when H+ binds, releases O)
- Presence of 2,3-BPG: binds to hemoglobin, releases O
- CO2 binding to hemoglobin: causes release of O
Describe “shift right” and “shift left”, in regards to oxygen affinity for hemoglobin
SHIFT RIGHT- in saturation curve
- decrease in O affinity to hemoglobin; additional release of O
- due to temp/pH/etc from prev slide
SHIFT LEFT - saturation curve
- increase in oxygen affinity to hemoglobin
- less release of oxygen
Hyperventilation
breathing rate or depth that is increased above the body’s demand
Hypoventilation
breathing either too slow (brady) or too shallow (hypopnea)
Hypernea
vigorous exercise: persons breathing depth increases while breathing rate remains same
