CH 2: Theories (vocab)

Question 1

psychological mechanisms

Answer 1

preferences, capacities, responses, and strategies characterizing our species

Question 2

environment of evolutionary adaptedness

Answer 2

the period tens of thousands of years ago when our species took its current form is the key to understanding the factors that drive intimate relationships today

–> need anthropologists data to discover what past environment was like

Question 3

theory of parental investment

Answer 3

sexual selection pressures can vary based on the amount of energy and resources each parent must invest to raise offspring

Females: high parental investment → must be selective about mates and choose only HQ partners (enough resources, commitment, protective)

Males: low parental investment → must be able to gain access to more selective females, ensuring that as many pairings as possible result in surviving offspring → ID who is fertile and mate w/ many
* over time from reproductive success, evolved a desire for multiple partners and mechanisms for identifying which ones would be fertile

Question 4

cross-cultural studies

Answer 4

identify behaviors that characterize mating and sexuality consistently across a wide variety of countries/cultures

• evolutionary psychologists conclude that behavior common to entire species are evolved mechanisms
• focus on identifying and explaining gender differences in mating and sexual behavior

Question 5

attachment figure

Answer 5

someone who provides the child with comfort and safety

Question 6

attachment behavior system

Answer 6

set of behaviors and reactions that monitor and promote the closeness of caregivers

3 key factors:

(1) We pay attention to our own internal states
(2) We keep track of our caregiver’s availability and responsiveness
(3) We look out for potential threats in the environment

–> feedback from the 3 factors motivate specific patterns of behavior; motivate us to restore closeness or explore while feeling protected

Question 7

felt security

Answer 7

sense of safety and protection that allows a developing child to explore the world and take risks

Question 8

working models

Answer 8

internal psychological structures that represent the conscious and unconscious beliefs, expectations, and feelings people have about: themselves, others, and/or relationships

Question 9

attachment styles

Answer 9

people’s orientations towards intimacy based on dimensions of positive/negative views of SELF (anxiety) and OTHERS (avoidance)

4 attachment styles: secure, preoccupied, dismissing, fearful

Question 10

secure attachment

Answer 10

positive view of self and others, low in attachment-related anxiety and avoidance → feel worthy of love and confident others are reliable; comfortable w/ intimacy but can maintain sense of independence

Question 11

preoccupied attachment

Answer 11

positive view of others so low-attachment avoidance, but low self-worth leaves them chronically high in anxiety; comes across as needy and dependent on others for reassurance

Question 12

dismissing attachment

Answer 12

positive view of self so view themselves as worthy of love; negative view of others so minimize importance of relationships and emphasize independence

Question 13

fearful attachment

Answer 13

negative view of self and others, causing high anxiety → because feel unworthy of care, seek validation from others; because expect others to be source of pain, avoid intimacy

Question 14

dyad

Answer 14

smallest group of people; Interdependence Theory researchers began w/ this to study group and never moved on

Question 15

interdependence theory

Answer 15

version of social exchange theory; the defining feature of any relationship is INTERDEPENDENCE - the extent to which the behaviors of each partner affect the outcomes of the other

Question 16

rewards

Answer 16

any of the ways a relationship may meet the needs + desires of each partner

Question 17

costs

Answer 17

any of the consequences of being in a relationship that prevents partners from meeting needs and desires

Question 18

material rewards

Answer 18

adequate food and protection

Question 19

social rewards

Answer 19

companionship, validation, and security (psychological needs)

Question 20

opportunity costs

Answer 20

the price of not pursuing a possible reward

Question 21

subjective probability

Answer 21

your own judgement about the likelihood of different possible outcomes your actions will have

Question 22

comparison level (CL)

Answer 22

a person’s standard of what they think they deserve in a relationship; can be higher or lower

–> satisfaction is not merely the result of positive experiences, must exceed the level we think we deserve

—> when we get less than our CL, we are not satisfied (even if overall is positive)

Question 23

dependence

Answer 23

how free a person feels to leave

Question 24

comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)

Answer 24

a partner’s perceptions of potential options; may be independent from person’s CL

Question 25

alternatives

Answer 25

all the possible situations outside of a current relationship

Question 26

barriers

Answer 26

forces outside of a relationship acting to keep partners together

Question 27

investments

Answer 27

resources a committed couple shares that would presumably be lost following a breakup

Question 28

commitment

Answer 28

intention to remain in and maintain a relationship

→ partners will feel more commitment to their current relationship when rewards are high, costs are low, and outcomes are higher than partners think they deserve (CL) and higher than those available outside of the relationship (CLalt)

Question 29

coercion theory

Answer 29

how 2 people may reinforce each other’s undesirable behaviors unintentionally

Question 30

escape conditioning

Answer 30

reinforcement of behaviors that lead to ending a negative experience

–> central to coercion theory, which is a branch of social learning theory

Question 31

negative reciprocity

Answer 31

responding to negativity with more negativity

Important predictor of unhappy relationships, couples unaware of it

Question 32

the three levels of environments in social ecology model

Answer 32

• microsystem: most immediate (e.g. family, friends)
• mesosystem: broader social context (e.g. neighborhood, culture)
• macrosystem: national and historic context (e.g. smartphones)

Question 33

ABC-X model

Answer 33

national and historic context (e.g. smartphones)

Question 34

stressor

Answer 34

(A) event requiring behavioral response (e.g. having a baby)

Question 35

resources

Answer 35

(B) assets a couple has in coping (e.g. money, family support)

–> family’s level of resources B changes how they experience stressor A

Question 36

interpretation of the event

Answer 36

(C) whether couple perceives stressor as a challenge to overcome or a catastrophe to be endured

–> view more manageable/positive = more effective adaptiveness

Question 37

crisis

Answer 37

(X) the couple’s experience of and response to the stressful event

–> if all levels (ABCX) negative, will hurt couple; if some levels positive dealing w/ crisis can enhance relationship

Question 38

double ABC-X model

Answer 38

each element of ABCX has first meaning as well as one that comes gradually

• -> couple’s interpretations of ongoing coping efforts will affect relationship
• -> considers not only initial responses, but also ongoing process of adaptation

Question 39

stress pile-up

Answer 39

domino effect of stressful events (e.g. flu → missing job interview → can’t pay rent)

Question 40

lifespan studies

Answer 40

assess individuals repeatedly over course of 50 yrs or more

example: military combat can intensify psych problems; lifespan research supports that otherwise OK relationships may suffer greatly w/ stressors

Question 41

social exchange theory formulas

Answer 41

OUTCOME = REWARDS - COSTS
meaning: if the rewards you’re getting from the relationship are greater than what it’s costing you to stay, the net outcome is positive (and vice versa w/ greater costs)

SATISFACTION = OUTCOME - CL
meaning: satisfaction is more than just having a net positive experience; we must get more than our standard in order to be satisfied

DEPENDENCE = OUTCOME - CLalt
meaning: how free a person feels to leave a relationship is a function of how the relationship compares to the possible alternatives outside

COMMITMENT = SATISFACTION + DEPENDENCE
meaning: partners will be more inclined to maintain their relationship when the rewards are high, costs are low, and outcomes are both higher than partners think they deserve and higher than those available outside the relationship

*** last equation is a good summary of social exchange theory