Ch 1-7, Mental Models - slideshow Flashcards
Definitions
mental model
Deeply ingrained assumptions, inferences, ideas, etc. that make up how a person sees the world
ladder of inference
Metaphor that shows how quickly we can leap to knee-jerk conclusions with little data and no intermediate thought process
three ways to implement the ladder of inference
Reflection (on your own beliefs), advocacy (for your beliefs), and inquiry (about others beliefs)
what we say
espoused theories
what we do
theories-in-use
using the left-hand column
Articulating what we normally do not say
left-hand column
A technique to “see” how our mental models operate in particular situations
What does the left-hand column do?
Reveals ways we manipulate situations to avoid dealing with how we really think and feel
What is the point of mental models?
Balance inquiry and advocacy, slow down for self-reflection
organizational behavior
Academic discipline focused on understanding and managing people at work
Three levels of OB
Individual, group/team, organizational
contingency perspective
- The belief that there is no one best way to manage people, teams or organizations
- The best/ most effective course of action depends on the situation
ethical dilemma
Situations with two choices, neither of which resolves the situation in an ethically acceptable manner and no clear ethical resolution arises
person factors
Characteristics that give individuals their unique identities
situation factors
Elements outside us that influence what we do, the way we do it, and the ultimate results of our actions
the three parts of the organizing framework for understanding and applying OB
- Input, processes, and outcomes.
- Inputs to processes. Outcomes separate, with arrows to both inputs and processes.
the inputs of the organizing framework of understanding and applying OB
Personal factors and situation factors
the levels of the processes and outcomes of the organizing framework of understanding and applying OB
Individual level, group/ team level, and organizational level
values
Abstract ideals that guide one’s thinking and behavior across all situations, relatively stable
personal attitudes
Representations of our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects, and range from positive to negative
the three things attitudes are comprised of
ABC model:
- Affective (“I feel…”)
- Behavioral (“I intend…”)
- Cognitive (“I believe…”)
cognitive dissonance
The psychological discomfort a person experiences when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions
Ajzen’s Theory of
Planned Behavior
[ Attitude toward the behavior ⇔ Subjective norm ⇔ Perceived behavioral control (⟹ Behavior) ] ⟹ Intention ⟹ Behavior
the four key workplace attitudes
Organizational commitment, employee engagement, perceived organizational support, job satisfaction
organizational commitment
The extent to which an employee identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals
employee engagement
The extent to which employees give it their all to their work roles, “in the zone”
perceived organizational support
The extent to which employees believe that the organization values their contributions and genuinely cares about their well-being
job satisfaction
The extent to which an individual likes his or her job, an affective or emotional response toward various aspects of one’s job
counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWBs)
Behaviors that harm other employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholders
relative stability of individual differences (most stable to most malleable)
- Intelligence
- Cognitive abilities
- Personality
- Core self-evaluations (self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, emotional stability)
- Attitudes
- Emotions
individual differences
A broad category used to collectively describe the vast number of attributes like traits and behaviors that describe a person
personality
The combination of stable physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics that give individuals their unique identities
core self-evaluations (CSEs)
A broad personality trait comprised of four narrow and positive individual traits:
self-efficacy, self esteem, locus of control, emotional stability
self-efficacy
A person’s belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task
self-esteem
A general belief about your self-worth
locus of control
Relatively stable personality characteristic that describes how much personal responsibility someone takes for their behavior and its consequences
emotional stability
Stable (tend to be relaxed, secure, unworried, and less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure) or neurotic (prone to anxiety and tend to view the world negatively).
emotional intelligence
The ability to monitor one’s own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions
emotions
Complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular person, information, experience, or event
anger
“Backward-looking” or retrospective
fear
“Forward looking” or prospective
perception
A cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand
our surroundings
intentions
how personal attitudes affect behavior
the three characteristics perceptions are based on
The perceiver, the target, and the situation
stage 1 of the Model of Perception
Selective attention/ comprehension
stage 2 of the Model of Perception
Encoding and simplification
stage 3 of the Model of Perception
Storage and retention
stage 4 of the Model of Perception
Retrieval and response
the three characteristics of personal perception
Characteristics of the target, characteristics of the perceiver, characteristics of the situation
stereotype
An individual’s set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group, may or may not be accurate
the four steps in which stereotypes form?
- Categorization
- Inferences
- Expectations
- Maintenance
causal attributions
Suspected or inferred causes of behavior
Kelley’s model of attribution says that behavior can be attributed either to
________ factors or ________ factors?
Internal (within a person, such as ability),
external (within the environment, such as a difficult task)
the three dimensions of behavior that are used to make causal attributions (Kelly’s model)
Consensus, distinctiveness, consistency
consensus
Compares an individual’s behavior with that of peers
distinctiveness
Compares a person’s behavior on one task with their behavior on other tasks
consistency
Compares an individual’s performance on a given task over time
What are attributional tendencies?
Errors or biases in one’s judgement concerning causal attribution
fundamental attribution bias
A tendency to attribute another person’s behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors
self-serving bias
One’s tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure
diversity
The multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people
demographics
The statistical measurements of populations and their qualities over time
the four layers of diversity
Personality, internal dimensions, external dimensions, organizational dimensions
the internal dimensions of diversity?
Age, gender, sexual orientation, physical ability, ethnicity, race
the external dimensions of diversity
Income, personal habits, recreational habits, religion, educational background, work experience, appearance, parental status, marital status, geographic location
the organizational dimensions of diversity
Functional level/ classification, work content/ field, division/ department/ unit/ group, seniority, work location, union affiliation, management status
discrimination
When employment decisions about an individual are due to reasons not associated with performance or are not related to the job
the glass ceiling
An invisible but absolute barrier or solid roadblock that prevents women (and other minority groups) from advancing to higher-level positions
ethnocentrism
The feeling that our cultural rules and norms are superior to or more appropriate than the rules and norms of another culture
motivation
The psychological processes “that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought,” it is either intrinsic or extrinsic
intrinsic motivation
When an individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well
extrinsic motivation
The potential or actual receipt of external
rewards such as recognition, money, or a promotion
content theories
Identify internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation
process theories
Explain the process by which internal factors and situational factors influence employee motivation
McGregor’s Theory X
Pessimistic view of employees
McGregor’s Theory Y
Positive and modern set of assumptions about employees
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- self-actualization
- esteem
- love
- safety
- physiological needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory needs
(E)xistence, (R)elatedness, (G)rowth
McClellan’s Acquired Needs theory needs
Achievement, Affiliation, Power
Self-determination theory needs
Autonomy, competency, relatedness
factors of Herzberg’s Motivator -Hygiene Theory
motivating factors (No Satisfaction - Satisfaction) and hygiene factors (No dissatisfaction - Dissatisfaction)
Herzberg’s Motivator -Hygiene Theory motivators
type of work (content)
Herzberg’s Motivator -Hygiene Theory hygiene factors
where the work is done (context)
Adam’s Equity Theory
people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships
elements of equity theory
outputs, inputs, and how the ratio between them (O/I) compares to relevant others’ ratios
Organizational justice/ Justice Theory
The extent to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work
the three types of justice
distributive, procedural, interactional
Expectancy theory
People are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes
job design
Alteration of specific or interdependent systems of jobs or intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and on-the-job productivity
examples of top-down job designs
job enlargement, job enrichment, scientific management, job rotation
example of bottom-up job design
job crafting
job crafting
employees’ attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics
idiosyncratic deals (i-deals)
the employment deals individuals negotiate for themselves, top-down bottom-up job design
performance management (PM)
A set of processes and managerial behaviors that involve defining, monitoring, measuring, evaluating, and providing consequences for performance expectations
the three primary functions of PM processes
- Make employee-related decisions
- Guide employee development
- Signal desired employee behavior
the steps of the effective PM system
- Define performance
- Monitor & evaluate performance
- Review performance
- Provide consequences
the two types of goals
learning and performance goals
SMART goals
Specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound goals
the goal implementing process
A - set a SMART goal
B - promote goal attainment
C - provide support and feedback
D - create action plans
task/ project goals
Goals for jobs that are dynamic, but in which nearer-term activities and milestones can be defined
objective goals
goals for jobs that are dynamic, but in which nearer-term activities and milestones can be defined
halo effect
Forming an overall impression about a person and using that to help evaluate their performance
leniency
Consistently evaluating other people in an extremely positive fashion while evaluating performance
central tendency
Avoiding all extreme judgements and rating people averagely while evaluating performance
regency effect
Over-relying on the most recent information to evaluate performance
contrast effect
Evaluating people by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people when evaluating performance
feedback
Information about individual or collective performance shared with those in a position to improve the situation
coaching
A customized process between two or more people with the intent of enhancing learning and motivating change
key factors in organizational rewards
- Types of rewards
- Distribution criteria
- Desired outcomes
extrinsic rewards
rewards that come from the environment
intrinsic rewards
self-granted rewards
pay for performance
Pay for performance is a system that involves monetary incentives linking at least some portion of one’s pay directly to results or accomplishments.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
favorable behavior is repeated and unfavorable behavior is not because of the consequences of each
Skinner’s theory
respondent behavior - automatic reactions to stimuli, and operant behavior - learned behavior when we “operate” on the environment to get desired outcomes
positive OB (POB)
POB involves the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and the psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for improvement performance in today’s workplace
the structure of the framework of POB
(Positive emotions. Mindfulness. Psychological capital and signature strengths) ⟹ Positivity from person factors ⟹ Positive outcomes
Organizational culture and climate ⟹ Positivity from situational factors ⟹ Positive outcomes
the benefits of POB
Positive deviance and conscious capitalism
psychological capital (PsyCap)
Hope (H), efficacy (E), resilience (R), optimism (O)
hope?
Having a goal and the determination to achieve it (willpower), and seeing one or more alternative paths to achieve the goal, even when faced with adversity (waypower)
What is resilience?
The capacity to consistently bounce back from adversity and to sustain oneself when confronted with challenges
What is optimism?
Optimism is when people view successes as due to their personal, permanent, and pervasive causes, and negative events as due to external, temporary, and situation - specific ones
What is virtuousness?
What individuals and organizations aspire to be when they are at their very best
What five elements is well-being comprised of (PERMA)?
P - Positive emotions
E - Engagement
R - Relationships
M – Meaningfulness
A - Achievement
What is flourishing?
The extent to which our lives contain PERMA
